Ashtadhyayi

अइउण्

a i u ṇ

Tradition holds that these fourteen sutras rang out from Shiva's damaru drum and were received by the sage Panini; together they form the phoneme-inventory from which every pratyāhāra (abbreviatory letter-class) used throughout the Ashtadhyayi is built. This opening sutra lists the vowels a, i, u and closes the group with the marker (it) ṇ.

ऋऌक्

ṛ ḷ k

The vocalic ṛ and ḷ — closed by the marker k.

एओङ्

e o ṅ

E and o — closed by the marker ṅ.

ऐऔच्

ai au c

Ai and au — closed by the marker c. Reaching this c from the a that opens sutra 1 yields the famous pratyāhāra 'ac', comprising all nine Sanskrit vowel-sounds (a, i, u, ṛ, ḷ, e, o, ai, au).

हयवरट्

ha ya va ra ṭ

H, y, v, r — closed by the marker ṭ.

लण्

la ṇ

L — closed by the marker ṇ.

ञमङणनम्

ña ma ṅa ṇa na m

Ñ, m, ṅ, ṇ, n — closed by the marker m (these five are the nasal consonants of 1.1.8).

झभञ्

jha bha ñ

Jh, bh — closed by the marker ñ.

घढधष्

gha ḍha dha ṣ

Gh, ḍh, dh — closed by the marker ṣ.

जबगडदश्

ja ba ga ḍa da ś

J, b, g, ḍ, d — closed by the marker ś.

खफछठथचटतव्

kha pha cha ṭha tha ca ṭa ta v

Kh, ph, ch, ṭh, th, c, ṭ, t — closed by the marker v.

कपय्

ka pa y

K, p — closed by the marker y.

शषसर्

śa ṣa sa r

Ś, ṣ, s — closed by the marker r.

हल्

ha l

H — closed by the marker l. This is the fourteenth and final Maheshvara Sutra. Reaching this l from the h that opens sutra 5 yields the pratyāhāra 'hal', comprising all thirty-three Sanskrit consonants — so that, between vowels and consonants, these fourteen terse lines contain the entire phonemic alphabet on which the whole of the Ashtadhyayi is built.

वृद्धिरादैच्

vṛddhirādaic

The vowel ā, and the diphthongs ai and au (the prātyāhāra aic), are both technically termed vṛddhi. This is the grammar's opening definitional rule, and the term vṛddhi it establishes underlies innumerable later operations throughout the text.

अदेङ् गुणः

adeṅ guṇaḥ

Short a, together with e and o (the prātyāhāra eṅ), are termed guṇa. Like vṛddhi, guṇa is one of the grammar's most heavily used technical terms, governing vowel change wherever roots meet affixes.

इको गुणवृद्धी

iko guṇavṛddhī

Wherever a later rule simply says 'guṇa' or 'vṛddhi' occurs without naming what it replaces, understand that it replaces one of the ik vowels (i, u, ṛ, ḷ). This governing rule silently supplies the missing term for every bare mention of guṇa or vṛddhi elsewhere in the text.

न धातुलोप आर्धधातुके

na dhātulopa ārdhadhātuke

When an ārdhadhātuka affix causes part of the root itself to be dropped, the guṇa or vṛddhi that the very same affix would otherwise have triggered is blocked. Forms like loluvaḥ and marīmṛjaḥ keep their root vowel unstrengthened because the affix that would strengthen it is also the one eliding a piece of the root.

क्ङिति च

kṅiti ca

Even when the triggering suffix carries the indicatory marker k or ṅ, the guṇa/vṛddhi of an ik vowel described in 1.1.3 still does not take place. Thus in bhūyāt, because the optative's augment yāsuṭ counts as kit, the ū of the root bhū is left unstrengthened, giving bhūyāt rather than a guṇa-form. (Note: the source page carried a stray extra letter here, corrected to the standard reading kṅiti ca — see review_note.)

Note: Source page had 'ग्क्ङिति च' (an extra initial ग्); corrected to the standard, unambiguous reading 'क्ङिति च' (kṅiti ca) per the known transcription glitch flagged for this sutra.

दीधीवेवीटाम्

dīdhīvevīṭām

Neither the two special roots dīdhīṅ ('to shine, reflect') and vevīṅ ('to go'), nor the augment iṭ, undergo guṇa or vṛddhi of their ik vowel. So dīdhī + ai gives dīdhyai, and vevī + ai gives vevyai, not a guṇa form.

हलोऽनन्तराः संयोगः

halo'nantarāḥ saṁyogaḥ

Consonants that stand adjacent with no vowel between them are termed saṃyoga, 'conjunction.' In agni the cluster gn, and in indra the cluster ndr, are each a saṃyoga.

मुखनासिकावचनोऽनुनासिकः

mukhanāsikāvacano'nunāsikaḥ

A sound articulated through both the mouth and the nose is called anunāsika, 'nasal.' The five class-nasals ṅ, ñ, ṇ, n and m are the anunāsikas.

तुल्यास्यप्रयत्नं सवर्णम्

tulyāsyaprayatnaṁ savarṇam

Sounds sharing both the same point of articulation and the same internal articulatory effort are called savarṇa, 'homogeneous,' to one another — t and th, for instance, are both dental and both fully stopped.

नाज्झलौ

nājjhalau

Rule 1.1.9 notwithstanding, a vowel (ac) and a consonant (hal) are never savarṇa to each other, however closely their place and manner of articulation might otherwise match.

ईदूदेद्द्विवचनं प्रगृह्यम्

īdūdeddvivacanaṁ pragṛhyam

Dual-number word-forms ending in ī, ū, or e are termed pragṛhya. As pragṛhya they resist sandhi even before a following vowel — agnī iti, vāyū iti, māle iti all keep their vowel unchanged rather than merging with iti.

अदसो मात्

adaso māt

The ī and ū that follow the m of the pronoun adas ('that') are likewise pragṛhya — so amī atra and amū atra keep the vowel intact rather than undergoing sandhi.

शे

śe

The lot-imperative's substitute ending śe is also termed pragṛhya, as in asme iti and yuṣme iti, which resist sandhi in the same way.

निपात एकाजनाङ्

nipāta ekājanāṅ

Apart from āṅ (ā), any particle (nipāta) consisting of just a single vowel is pragṛhya — as in a apehi, i indraṃ paśya, u uttiṣṭha, where the particle's vowel again resists sandhi.

ओत्

ot

A particle ending in o is likewise pragṛhya, as in atho iti and aho adhunā.

सम्बुद्धौ शाकल्यस्येतावनार्षे

sambuddhau śākalyasyetāvanārṣe

In non-Vedic usage, when iti follows a vocative in o, the grammarian Shakalya optionally allows it to be pragṛhya — giving vāyo iti (unsandhied) alongside the ordinarily expected vāyav iti.

उञः

uñaḥ

By the same Shakalya convention, the pratyāhāra uñ (the sound u used as an interjection) is pragṛhya before non-Vedic iti, as in u iti.

ऊँ

ūm̐

Under the same convention, uñ before non-Vedic iti may instead be replaced by the long nasalized ūṃ, which is likewise pragṛhya.

ईदूतौ च सप्तम्यर्थे

īdūtau ca saptamyarthe

Word-forms ending in ī or ū that convey a locative ('in/on') sense are also pragṛhya — closing the run of pragṛhya rules begun at 1.1.11.

दाधा घ्वदाप्

dādhā ghvadāp

Apart from the roots dāp and daip, the roots that reduce to the syllable dā and the two roots reducing to dhā are termed ghu. This ghu designation underlies later vowel operations — it is why the imperative of dā (to give) becomes dehi rather than a form based on unstrengthened dā.

आद्यन्तवदेकस्मिन्

ādyantavadekasmin

When a single element must simultaneously function as both the 'beginning' and the 'end' of something, an operation prescribed for the beginning and one prescribed for the end are both applied to that single element, as in kumārītarā.

तरप्तमपौ घः

taraptamapau ghaḥ

The comparative suffix tarap and superlative suffix tamap are termed gha, a designation that governs vowel behaviour before them, as in gurutaraḥ ('heavier') and gurutamaḥ ('heaviest').

बहुगणवतुडति संख्या

bahugaṇavatuḍati saṁkhyā

The word bahu ('many'), words of the gaṇa class, and words ending in the suffixes vatu (e.g. yāvat) or ḍati (e.g. kati) are termed saṅkhyā, 'numeral' — giving them the grammatical behaviour of number-words even though they are not ordinary numerals.

ष्णान्ता षट्

ṣṇāntā ṣaṭ

Numeral words ending in ṣ or n (such as ṣaṣ, 'six') are termed ṣaṭ, which governs how their case-endings behave.

डति च

ḍati ca

Words ending in the suffix ḍati (like kati, 'how many') are likewise termed ṣaṭ.

क्तक्तवतू निष्ठा

ktaktavatū niṣṭhā

The past-participial suffixes kta (e.g. gataḥ, 'gone') and ktavatu (e.g. gatavān) are termed niṣṭhā, a designation that governs a whole range of later operations on these participles.

सर्वादीनि सर्वनामानि

sarvādīni sarvanāmāni

Words listed in the sarva-gaṇa (sarva, viśva, ubhaya, and the like) are termed sarvanāma, 'pronoun' — but only when used in their genuinely all-inclusive sense.

विभाषा दिक्समासे बहुव्रीहौ

vibhāṣā diksamāse bahuvrīhau

In a bahuvrīhi compound denoting a direction, a sarvādi word inside it is only optionally termed sarvanāma — the designation, and the declension it brings, may or may not apply.

न बहुव्रीहौ

na bahuvrīhau

Outside the special case in 1.1.28, a sarvādi word inside an ordinary bahuvrīhi compound is not termed sarvanāma at all.

तृतीयासमासे

tṛtīyāsamāse

Nor is a sarvādi word termed sarvanāma inside a tṛtīyā-tatpuruṣa (instrumental-case) compound.

द्वन्द्वे च

dvandve ca

The same exclusion applies inside a dvandva (copulative) compound.

विभाषा जसि

vibhāṣā jasi

But 1.1.31's exclusion is itself optional when the jas (nominative plural) ending is at issue — sarvanāma status may then still apply.

प्रथमचरमतयाल्पार्धकतिपयनेमाश्च

prathamacaramatayālpārdhakatipayanemāśca

Seven further words — prathama, carama, words ending in the suffix tayap, alpa, ardha, katipaya, and nema — also optionally take sarvanāma status before the jas ending, giving alternative forms such as alpe/alpāḥ.

पूर्वपरावरदक्षिणोत्तरापराधराणि व्यवस्थायामसंज्ञायाम्

pūrvaparāvaradakṣiṇottarāparādharāṇi vyavasthāyāmasaṁjñāyām

Pūrva, para, avara, dakṣiṇa, uttara, apara and adhara, when used to indicate relative position or arrangement rather than as a fixed proper name, optionally take sarvanāma status before jas.

स्वमज्ञातिधनाख्यायाम्

svamajñātidhanākhyāyām

The word sva ('own'), when it denotes neither kinship nor wealth, optionally takes sarvanāma status before jas.

अन्तरं बहिर्योगोपसंव्यानयोः

antaraṁ bahiryogopasaṁvyānayoḥ

In the sense of 'external relation' or 'covering garment,' the word antara likewise optionally takes sarvanāma status before jas, giving alternatives like antare gṛhāḥ / antarā gṛhāḥ.

स्वरादिनिपातमव्ययम्

svarādinipātamavyayam

Words listed in the svarādi group, and every particle (nipāta, such as ca, vā, ha), are termed avyaya, 'indeclinable' — their form does not change with case.

तद्धितश्चासर्वविभक्तिः

taddhitaścāsarvavibhaktiḥ

A word ending in a taddhita affix that does not decline through the full set of case-forms is likewise termed avyaya — as with ataḥ, formed with the suffix tasil.

कृन्मेजन्तः

kṛnmejantaḥ

A kṛt-formed word ending in m, or ending in one of the ejanta vowels (e, o, ai, au), is also termed avyaya, as in smāraṃ smāram and jīvase. (Note: both source witnesses garbled this sutra differently; the text here follows the well-established standard reading — see review_note.)

Note: Both source witnesses garbled this sutra differently (bare edition: 'कृत्मेजन्तः'; commentary edition: 'कृमेजन्तः'). Corrected to the well-established standard reading 'कृन्मेजन्तः' (kṛnmejantaḥ).

क्त्वातोसुन्कसुनः

ktvātosunkasunaḥ

Words formed with the suffixes ktvā (e.g. paṭhitvā, 'having read'), tosun (e.g. udetoḥ), and kasun (e.g. visṛpaḥ) are likewise avyaya.

अव्ययीभावश्च

avyayībhāvaśca

The avyayībhāva compound-type is, true to its name, itself termed avyaya — as in yathāśakti, 'according to ability.'

शि सर्वनामस्थानम्

śi sarvanāmasthānam

The i that remains of the substitute śi (used for jas in certain stems) is termed sarvanāmasthāna — a designation that triggers the special stem-strengthening seen in forms like rājānaḥ.

सुडनपुंसकस्य

suḍanapuṁsakasya

Excluding the neuter, the endings su, au, jas, am and auṭ are also termed sarvanāmasthāna in the other genders.

न वेति विभाषा

na veti vibhāṣā

The term vibhāṣā, whenever it appears in the grammar, signals optionality — that a rule 'may or may not' apply, as in the alternative forms uktaḥ / uktavān.

इग्यणः सम्प्रसारणम्

igyaṇaḥ samprasāraṇam

When a semivowel (y, v, r, l) is replaced by its corresponding vowel (i, u, ṛ, ḷ respectively), that substitute vowel is termed samprasāraṇa.

आद्यन्तौ टकितौ

ādyantau ṭakitau

When some element carried by an affix is to be inserted into a stem, an element marked with indicatory ṭ attaches at the beginning of the stem, while one marked with indicatory k attaches at its end.

मिदचोऽन्त्यात्परः

midaco'ntyātparaḥ

An element marked with indicatory m is inserted immediately after the last vowel of the stem, as when the augment num turns muc into muñc.

एच इग्घ्रस्वादेशे

eca igghrasvādeśe

When a rule calls for a short ik-vowel to replace one of the ec vowels (e, ai, o, au), e/ai are replaced by i and o/au are replaced by u, as in bhavitā, from bhū.

षष्ठी स्थानेयोगा

ṣaṣṭhī sthāneyogā

When a genitive case-form in a rule cannot be construed as relating meaningfully to anything else, it is understood in the sense 'in place of' — this is the working assumption behind virtually every substitution-rule in the grammar.

स्थानेऽन्तरतमः

sthāne'ntaratamaḥ

Where more than one substitute is available for something, the one selected is whichever most closely resembles what it replaces — as when ik is replaced specifically by the corresponding semivowel (yaṇ).

उरण् रपरः

uraṇ raparaḥ

When ṛ (or ṝ) is replaced by a, i, or u, that replacement is treated as if followed by an r (and similarly, a replacement for ḷ is treated as followed by l) — which is why kṛ + ta gives karta, with the r reappearing.

अलोऽन्त्यस्य

alo'ntyasya

An operation prescribed for a genitive-marked word applies, by default, only to its very last sound — not to the whole word — unless stated otherwise.

ङिच्च

ṅicca

The same 'last sound only' rule extends to substitutes marked with indicatory ṅ, as when the substitute anaṅ replaces just the final vowel of sakhi to give sakhā.

आदेः परस्य

ādeḥ parasya

Conversely, an operation prescribed for the following (para) element applies only to its first sound, not to the whole of it.

अनेकाल्शित्सर्वस्य

anekālśitsarvasya

An exception to 1.1.52: if the substitute itself consists of several sounds, or is marked śit, it replaces the entire genitive-marked word, not merely its last sound — as when the multi-phonemic ais replaces the whole ending bhis, giving rāmaiḥ.

स्थानिवदादेशोऽनल्विधौ

sthānivadādeśo'nalvidhau

Except where a rule specifically concerns an individual sound (al-vidhi), a substitute behaves exactly as though it were the thing it replaced (sthānivat), inheriting that original element's grammatical properties for every other purpose.

अचः परस्मिन् पूर्वविधौ

acaḥ parasmin pūrvavidhau

In a rule oriented toward what precedes (pūrvavidhi), even a substitute standing for a following vowel is treated as though it were that original vowel, for the purposes of that rule.

न पदान्तद्विर्वचनवरेयलोपस्वरसवर्णानुस्वारदीर्घजश्चर्विधिषु

na padāntadvirvacanavareyalopasvarasavarṇānusvāradīrghajaścarvidhiṣu

This rule blocks sthānivadbhāva (1.1.56-57): for nine specific kinds of operations — word-final rules, reduplication, y-elision, vowel rules, homogeneity rules, anusvāra, vowel-lengthening, jaśtva and carva — a vowel-substitute is not treated as its original, as seen in forms like papatuḥ, papuḥ.

द्विर्वचनेऽचि

dvirvacane'ci

When reduplication is to be carried out, the vowel-initial affix that triggers the reduplication is left unaltered — no substitute takes its place — until the reduplication itself has been performed.

अदर्शनं लोपः

adarśanaṁ lopaḥ

In this grammar, the complete non-occurrence of a sound is called lopa, 'elision' — it is not present even as a trace. All markers termed lopa (luk, ślu, lup) work this way, as seen in viśākhaḥ, juhoti, and varaṇāḥ.

प्रत्ययस्य लुक्श्लुलुपः

pratyayasya lukślulupaḥ

When it is specifically an affix that undergoes complete elision, that elision is named luk, ślu, or lup, depending on context — three particular varieties of the general lopa defined in 1.1.60.

प्रत्ययलोपे प्रत्ययलक्षणम्

pratyayalope pratyayalakṣaṇam

Even after an affix has been elided, operations that depend on that affix's presence still take place, as if the affix, though physically absent, were still there. This is why forms like gargāḥ and mṛṣṭaḥ retain effects of an affix no longer visible.

न लुमताऽङ्गस्य

na lumatā'ṅgasya

An exception to 1.1.62: if the affix was specifically elided by one of the luk/ślu/lup varieties, then stem-related operations that depended on it do not proceed after all.

अचोऽन्त्यादि टि

aco'ntyādi ṭi

The portion of a word stretching from its last vowel to the very end is termed ṭi — the final a of rāma, or the final i of hari, is the ṭi of that word.

अलोऽन्त्यात् पूर्व उपधा

alo'ntyāt pūrva upadhā

The sound immediately preceding a word's final sound, vowel or consonant, is termed upadhā, 'penultimate.' In rāvaṇa, the ṇ just before the final a is its upadhā.

तस्मिन्निति निर्दिष्टे पूर्वस्य

tasminniti nirdiṣṭe pūrvasya

When a rule names something in the locative case, the operation it prescribes applies to whatever immediately precedes that named element — as when 'ac' in the locative in ikoyaṇaci points to the ik just before it as the site of the yaṇ substitution.

तस्मादित्युत्तरस्य

tasmādityuttarasya

Conversely, when a rule names something in the ablative case, the operation applies to whatever comes immediately after it.

स्वं रूपं शब्दस्याशब्दसंज्ञा

svaṁ rūpaṁ śabdasyāśabdasaṁjñā

Outside of a specific technical designation, a word occurring in the grammar's rules refers simply to its own form, even if that same form happens to carry some other ordinary meaning as well, as with ramā in ramā + īśvaraḥ = rameśvaraḥ.

अणुदित् सवर्णस्य चाप्रत्ययः

aṇudit savarṇasya cāpratyayaḥ

When aṇ vowels or udit-marked sounds are not themselves the thing being newly introduced by a rule, they stand for their entire homogeneous set (short, long and prolated alike) — though not when functioning as an affix.

तपरस्तत्कालस्य

taparastatkālasya

A refinement of 1.1.69: if a t is attached before or after such a vowel, it denotes only sounds of that same duration — āt means only long ā, it means only short i, and so on, not the whole homogeneous set.

आदिरन्त्येन सहेता

ādirantyena sahetā

The first sound of a sequence, combined with a later it-marker, denotes not just those two sounds but everything between them as well. This is the very principle by which every pratyāhāra (such as ac or hal) is built out of the fourteen Maheshvara Sutras.

येन विधिस्तदन्तस्य

yena vidhistadantasya

When a rule uses some qualifier (such as an affix-name) to prescribe an operation, that qualifier is understood to denote the entire word ending in it, not merely the qualifier itself — hence śālāyāṃ bhavaḥ becomes śālīyaḥ.

वृद्धिर्यस्याचामादिस्तद् वृद्धम्

vṛddhiryasyācāmādistad vṛddham

A word whose first vowel is a vṛddhi vowel (ā, ai or au) is itself termed vṛddha, 'vṛddhi-bearing' — as with śālā, whose opening ā makes the whole word vṛddha.

त्यदादीनि च

tyadādīni ca

The pronouns of the tyad group (tyad, tad, etad, idam, adas, yuṣmad, asmad, tvat, bhavat, kim) are likewise termed vṛddha, regardless of whether their first vowel is actually a vṛddhi sound.

एङ् प्राचां देशे

eṅ prācāṁ deśe

Names of eastern regions whose first vowel belongs to the eṅ group (e or o) are also treated as vṛddha in the view of some grammarians, as in gonarda giving gonardīyaḥ — closing this opening run of definitional (saṃjñā) rules.

गाङ्कुटादिभ्योऽञ्णिन्ङित्

gāṅkuṭādibhyo'ñṇinṅit

After the substitute gāṅ, and after the roots of the kuṭādi class (some forty roots from kuṭ to kuṅ), any affix that is not itself marked ñit or ṇit is treated as though marked ṅit, triggering the guṇa-blocking and other effects that ṅit carries.

विज इट्

vija iṭ

Affixes with the augment iṭ following the root vij ('to fear, to tremble') are optionally treated as ṅit, as in udvijitā, udvijitum.

विभाषोर्णोः

vibhāṣorṇoḥ

Affixes with the augment iṭ following the root ūrṇu ('to cover') are likewise optionally ṅit, producing alternative forms like ūrṇunuvitha / ūrṇunavitha.

सार्वधातुकमपित्

sārvadhātukamapit

Excluding the three endings tip, sip and mip, every other sārvadhātuka (present-system) ending is inherently treated as ṅit, blocking guṇa before it, as in śṛṇutas.

असंयोगाल्लिट्कित

asaṁyogālliṭkita

When the stem does not end in a consonant cluster, a non-p-marked (apit) liṭ (perfect-tense) ending such as atus is treated as kit, blocking guṇa, as seen in siṣidhatuḥ.

इन्धिभवतिभ्यांच्

indhibhavatibhyāṁc

The liṭ ending is also treated as kit after the roots indh ('to kindle') and bhū ('to be'), as in īndha + e = īdhe.

मृडमृदगुधकुषक्लिशवदवसःक्त्वा

mṛḍamṛdagudhakuṣakliśavadavasaḥktvā

After the seven roots mṛḍ, mṛd, gudh, kuṣ, kliś, vad and vas, the gerund suffix ktvā is treated as kit, as in mṛḍitvā, kliśitvā.

रुदविदमुषग्रहिस्वपिप्रच्छःसंश्र्च्

rudavidamuṣagrahisvapipracchaḥsaṁśrc

After rud, vid, muṣ, grahi, svapi and pracch, both the ktvā gerund and the desiderative san suffix are treated as kit, giving ruditvā/ruruḍiṣati and gṛhītvā/jighṛkṣati.

इकोझल्

ikojhal

After a root ending in an ik vowel, a desiderative suffix beginning with a jhal consonant is treated as kit — hence kṛ (to do) gives the desiderative cikīrṣati, without guṇa of the root vowel.

हलन्ताच्च्

halantācc

The same kit-status extends to a desiderative suffix beginning with jhal even when it follows a consonant standing near an ik vowel, as in nivikṣate (from ni + viś + san).

लिङ् सिचावात्मनेपदेषु

liṅ sicāvātmanepadeṣu

In the same environment, a jhal-initial optative (āśīrliṅ) ending and an ātmanepada sic (aorist) ending in the middle voice are likewise treated as kit, as in dhukṣīṣṭa (from duh).

उश्र्च

uśrca

After a root ending in ṛ, the same jhal-initial ātmanepada liṅ and sic endings are likewise kit, blocking guṇa/vṛddhi, as in bhṛṣīṣṭa (from bhṛ).

वागमः

vāgamaḥ

After the root gam ('to go'), the jhal-initial ātmanepada liṅ and sic endings are only optionally kit, giving alternatives such as saṃgasīṣṭa / saṃgaṃsīṣṭa.

हनःसिच्

hanaḥsic

After the root han ('to strike/kill'), the sic ending is treated as kit, as in āhata.

यमोअगन्धने

yamoagandhane

When the root yam is used in the specific sense 'to expose a fault,' its ātmanepada sic ending is treated as kit, as in udāyata.

विभाषोपयमने

vibhāṣopayamane

When yam means 'to take in marriage,' its ātmanepada sic is only optionally kit, giving upāyata kanyām / upāyaṃsta kanyām.

स्थाध्वोरिच्च्

sthādhvoricc

Before an ātmanepada ending, the root sthā ('to stand') and the ghu-class roots (1.1.20) replace their final vowel with i, and their sic ending is treated as kit, as in adita, from dā.

नक्त्वासेट्

naktvāseṭ

A ktvā gerund that carries the augment iṭ is not treated as kit — a general exception to the preceding kit-rules — hence śayitvā (with guṇa) rather than an unstrengthened form.

निष्ठाशीङ्ग् स्विअदिमिदिक्ष्विदिधृषः

niṣṭhāśīṅg sviadimidikṣvididhṛṣaḥ

After the five roots śīṅ, svid, mid, kṣvid and dhṛṣ, a niṣṭhā (past-participle) suffix carrying the augment iṭ is not treated as kit, hence śayitaḥ, prasveditaḥ.

मृषस्तितिक्षायाम्

mṛṣastitikṣāyām

When mṛṣ means 'to endure, forgive,' its iṭ-bearing niṣṭhā suffix is likewise not kit, so guṇa applies, giving marṣitaḥ.

उदुपधाद्भावादिकर्मणोरन्यतरस्याम्

udupadhādbhāvādikarmaṇoranyatarasyām

For roots with u as their penultimate sound, the iṭ-bearing niṣṭhā suffix optionally escapes kit-status in the impersonal and object-oriented passive, yielding pairs like dyotitam / dyutitam.

पूङः क्त्वाच

pūṅaḥ ktvāca

After the root pūṅ ('to purify'), both the iṭ-bearing ktvā and niṣṭhā suffixes fail to be kit, hence pavitaḥ, pavitvā.

नोपधात्थफान्ताद्वा

nopadhātthaphāntādvā

For roots with n as penultimate, or ending in th or ph, the iṭ-bearing ktvā suffix is optionally exempt from kit-status, giving alternatives like grathitvā / granthitvā.

वञ्चिलुञ्च्यृतश्र्च्

vañciluñcyṛtaśrc

The roots vañc ('to deceive'), luñc ('to pluck') and ṛt ('to loathe') likewise optionally exempt their iṭ-bearing ktvā from kit-status, giving vacitvā / vañcitvā.

तृषिमृषिकृशेःकाश्यपस्य

tṛṣimṛṣikṛśeḥkāśyapasya

In the view of the grammarian Kashyapa, the iṭ-bearing ktvā suffix after tṛṣ ('to thirst'), mṛṣ ('to bear') and kṛś ('to grow thin') is likewise optionally exempt from kit-status, giving tṛṣitvā / tarṣitvā.

रलोव्युपधाद्धलादेःसंश्र्च्

ralovyupadhāddhalādeḥsaṁśrc

For a consonant-initial root ending in a ral-class sound with i or u as its penultimate vowel, the iṭ-bearing ktvā and desiderative san suffixes are optionally treated as kit.

ऊकालोऽज्झ्रस्वदीर्घप्लुतः

ūkālo'jjhrasvadīrghaplutaḥ

Vowels of one, two, or three morae are termed hrasva ('short'), dīrgha ('long'), and pluta ('prolated') respectively — named here from the example of u, but the definition covers every vowel's duration throughout the grammar.

अचश्र्च

acaśrca

The duration-terms of 2.27, though illustrated there with u, in fact extend to every vowel of the language.

उच्चैरुदात्तः

uccairudāttaḥ

A pitch-accent pronounced high is termed udātta, 'raised' — the first of the three Vedic pitch-accents this section now defines.

नीचैरनुदात्तः

nīcairanudāttaḥ

A pitch-accent pronounced low is termed anudātta, 'unraised' — the counterpart of udātta.

समाहारःस्वरितः

samāhāraḥsvaritaḥ

A pitch formed as a blend (samāhāra) of udātta and anudātta is termed svarita — the third of the three Vedic pitch-accents.

तस्यादित उदात्तमर्धह्रस्वम्

tasyādita udāttamardhahrasvam

Within a svarita, the first half — equal to one short mora — is pronounced high (udātta) and the remainder low, physically realizing the blend that defines it.

एकश्रुतिदूरात्संबुद्धौ

ekaśrutidūrātsaṁbuddhau

In a vocative call made across a distance, every syllable is pronounced at a single uniform pitch (ekaśruti) — the udātta/anudātta/svarita distinction disappears, as in āgaccha bho māṇavaka devadatta, called out to someone far away.

यज्ञकर्मण्यजपन्यूंखसामसु

yajñakarmaṇyajapanyūṁkhasāmasu

In the recitation of a Vedic sacrifice, too, every syllable is pronounced at a uniform pitch — except in silent japa recitation, the nyūṅkha style, and Sāman chant, which keep their own distinct accents.

उच्चैस्तरांवावषट्कारः

uccaistarāṁvāvaṣaṭkāraḥ

The ritual exclamation vaṣaṭ may optionally be pronounced at an even higher pitch than ordinary udātta, or else follow the general ekaśruti rule of 2.34.

विभाषाछन्दसि

vibhāṣāchandasi

In Vedic recitation generally, either the uniform-pitch ekaśruti convention or the ordinary three-way udātta/anudātta/svarita accentuation may optionally be used.

नसुब्रह्मण्यायांस्वरितस्यतूदात्तः

nasubrahmaṇyāyāṁsvaritasyatūdāttaḥ

In the special Vedic invocation called Subrahmaṇyā, the ekaśruti rule does not apply; instead, wherever a svarita would occur, an udātta is substituted.

देवब्रह्मणोरनुदात्तः

devabrahmaṇoranudāttaḥ

But within that same Subrahmaṇyā invocation, the words deva and brahman replace their svarita specifically with anudātta, not udātta.

स्वरितात्संहितायामनुदात्तानाम्

svaritātsaṁhitāyāmanudāttānām

In connected recitation (saṃhitā), a run of anudātta syllables immediately following a svarita is leveled to a uniform pitch (ekaśruti).

उदात्तस्वरितपरस्यसन्नतरः

udāttasvaritaparasyasannataraḥ

An anudātta syllable that stands immediately before an udātta or a svarita is pronounced even lower than ordinary anudātta — this extra-depressed pitch is called sannatara.

अपृक्तएकालप्रत्ययः

apṛktaekālapratyayaḥ

A suffix consisting of just a single sound (one al) is termed apṛkta — the s of ramā + s, for instance. This designation underlies several later elision rules.

तत्पुरुषःसमानाधिकरणःकर्मधारयः

tatpuruṣaḥsamānādhikaraṇaḥkarmadhārayaḥ

A tatpuruṣa compound whose two members refer to one and the same thing (samānādhikaraṇa) is termed karmadhāraya, as in nīlotpalam ('blue lotus'), where 'blue' and 'lotus' both describe the same single flower.

प्रथमानिर्दिष्टंसमास उपसर्जनम्

prathamānirdiṣṭaṁsamāsa upasarjanam

In a compound-forming rule, whichever member is named in the nominative case is termed upasarjana, 'subordinate' — a designation that later governs word-order and gender within the compound.

एकविभक्तिचापूर्वनिपाते

ekavibhakticāpūrvanipāte

Where the upasarjana is not placed first, a member whose case-ending stays fixed throughout the compound's analysis is also termed upasarjana.

अर्थवदधातुरप्रत्ययःप्रातिपदिकम्

arthavadadhāturapratyayaḥprātipadikam

A meaningful word-form that is neither a verbal root nor a suffix is termed prātipadika, 'nominal stem' — words like rāma, vṛkṣa, bālaka qualify, while a root like bhū does not.

कृत्तद्धितसमासाश्र्च

kṛttaddhitasamāsāśrca

Words ending in kṛt or taddhita affixes, and compound words, are also termed prātipadika, independently of 2.45's own criteria — as with kṛṣṇa (kṛṣ + na).

ह्रस्वोनपुंसकेप्रातिपदिकस्य

hrasvonapuṁsakeprātipadikasya

A vowel-final neuter nominal stem has its final vowel shortened, as in atiri kulam.

गोस्त्रियोरुपसर्जनस्य

gostriyorupasarjanasya

When the subordinate (upasarjana) member of a compound is the word go ('cow') or ends in a feminine suffix, its final vowel is shortened, as with mālā in atimāla.

लुक्तद्धितलुकि

luktaddhitaluki

When a taddhita suffix itself undergoes luk-elision, an accompanying feminine suffix is elided along with it, as in pañcendraḥ.

इद्गोण्याः

idgoṇyāḥ

When a taddhita suffix on the word goṇī undergoes luk, its feminine ending is replaced by r, as in pañcagoṇiḥ.

लुपियुक्तवद्वयक्तिवचने

lupiyuktavadvayaktivacane

Even after a suffix has undergone lup-elision, the gender and number of the resulting word are still determined as though the affix's original base were governing them, as with pañcāla.

विशेषणानांचाजातेः

viśeṣaṇānāṁcājāteḥ

Provided it is not itself denoting a class, an adjective qualifying such a taddhita-derived word likewise follows the gender and number of the underlying base, as in pañcālāḥ ramaṇīyāḥ.

तदशिष्यंसंज्ञाप्रमाणत्वात्

tadaśiṣyaṁsaṁjñāpramāṇatvāt

This principle cannot be taught exhaustively, because the gender and number of such class-names (janapada-names and the like) is ultimately fixed by established usage, not by any rule.

लुब्योगाप्रख्यानात्

lubyogāprakhyānāt

Even the elision (lup) prescribed by rules like 'lup in the sense of a country' need not really be taught, since the connection between the base word and its derivative is not always transparently perceived.

योगप्रमाणेचतदभावेऽदर्शनंस्यात्

yogapramāṇecatadabhāve'darśanaṁsyāt

If perceptible grammatical connection were made the sole criterion for using a word, then wherever that connection is not perceived, a word like pañcāla could never be used at all — a self-critical aside within this section.

प्रधानप्रत्ययार्थवचनस्यान्यप्रमाणत्वात्

pradhānapratyayārthavacanasyānyapramāṇatvāt

Likewise, it is unnecessary to formally teach which compound-member is 'principal' or what a given affix means — such matters, too, are ultimately settled by ordinary usage rather than by rule.

कालोपसर्जनेचतुल्यम्

kālopasarjanecatulyam

The same holds for tense (kāla) and for what counts as subordinate (upasarjana) — both, too, are ultimately fixed by usage rather than by explicit rule. This closes the section's brief self-critical aside.

जात्याख्यायामेकस्मिन्बहुवचनमन्यतरस्याम्

jātyākhyāyāmekasminbahuvacanamanyatarasyām

When a word is meant to denote an entire class or species, plural number may optionally be used in place of the expected singular — sampannā yavāḥ alongside sampanno yavaḥ.

अस्मदोद्वयोश्र्च

asmadodvayośrca

The pronoun asmad ('I/we') may likewise optionally take plural forms in place of its expected singular or dual — a single speaker may say vayaṃ brūmaḥ ('we say') instead of ahaṃ bravīmi.

फल्गुनीप्रोष्ठपदानांचनक्षत्रे

phalgunīproṣṭhapadānāṁcanakṣatre

The names of the twin nakṣatras Phalgunī and Proṣṭhapada may optionally take plural in place of the expected dual, as in uditāḥ pūrvāḥ phalgunyaḥ alongside udite pūrve phalgunyau.

छन्दसिपुनर्वस्वोरेकवचनम्

chandasipunarvasvorekavacanam

In Vedic usage, the nakṣatra name Punarvasu may optionally take singular number in place of its ordinary dual, as in punarvasurnakṣatram alongside punarvasū nakṣatre.

विशाखयोश्र्च

viśākhayośrca

The same optional singular-for-dual applies to the nakṣatra name Viśākhā in Vedic usage, as in viśākhā nakṣatram alongside viśākhe nakṣatre.

तिष्यपुनर्वस्वोर्नक्षत्रद्वन्देबहुवचनस्यद्विवचनंनित्यम्

tiṣyapunarvasvornakṣatradvandebahuvacanasyadvivacanaṁnityam

When Tiṣya and Punarvasu form a dvandva compound denoting the nakṣatras themselves, the ending is always (nityam) dual rather than the plural that the compound would otherwise take, as in uditau tiṣyapunarvasū.

सरुपाणामेकशेषएकविभक्तौ

sarupāṇāmekaśeṣaekavibhaktau

When two or more identically-formed words would take the same case-ending, only a single instance of that form is retained (ekaśeṣa) and the rest are elided, though the plural or dual meaning survives — vṛkṣaśca vṛkṣaśca becomes simply vṛkṣau.

वृद्धोयूनातल्लक्षणश्र्चेदेवविशेषः

vṛddhoyūnātallakṣaṇaśrcedevaviśeṣaḥ

When a gotra-name for an ancestor and one for a descendant, formed from the same stem, occur together, and their only difference is that very vṛddha/yuvan distinction, the ekaśeṣa retains the vṛddha (elder-generation) form.

स्त्रीपुंवच्च

strīpuṁvacca

When a feminine gotra-name and a yuvan-suffixed word occur together, the feminine form is what survives in the ekaśeṣa, and it is thereafter treated grammatically like a masculine word.

पुमान्स्त्रिया

pumānstriyā

When a feminine and a masculine word occur together, differing only in gender, the masculine form survives in the ekaśeṣa — brāhmaṇaśca brāhmaṇī ca becomes brāhmaṇau.

भ्रातृपुत्रौस्वसृदुहितृभ्याम्

bhrātṛputrausvasṛduhitṛbhyām

For these specific kinship pairs, bhrātṛ ('brother') survives when paired with svasṛ ('sister'), and putra ('son') survives when paired with duhitṛ ('daughter') — bhrātā ca svasā ca becomes bhrātarau.

नपुंसकमनपुंसकेनैकवच्चास्यान्यतरस्याम्

napuṁsakamanapuṁsakenaikavaccāsyānyatarasyām

When a neuter and a non-neuter (masculine or feminine) word occur together, differing only in gender, the neuter form optionally survives the ekaśeṣa, and may optionally even be treated as singular regardless of actual number.

पितामात्रा

pitāmātrā

When mātṛ ('mother') and pitṛ ('father') occur together, pitṛ may optionally survive alone in the ekaśeṣa, so pitarau can mean 'mother and father' together.

श्र्वशुरःश्र्वश्र्वा

śrvaśuraḥśrvaśrvā

When śvaśrū ('mother-in-law') and śvaśura ('father-in-law') occur together, śvaśura may optionally survive alone as the ekaśeṣa, so śvaśurau can optionally mean 'both parents-in-law.'

त्यदादीनिसर्वैर्नित्यम्

tyadādīnisarvairnityam

Words of the tyad group (listed at 1.1.74), when paired with any other word, always (not merely optionally) survive as the ekaśeṣa — sa ca devadattaśca becomes simply tau.

ग्राम्यपशुसंघेष्वतरुणेषुस्त्री

grāmyapaśusaṁgheṣvataruṇeṣustrī

For a herd of adult domestic animals, when both the male and female words would occur together, the feminine word survives as the ekaśeṣa — gāvaśca vṛṣabhāśca becomes simply gāvaḥ. This closes Pada 1.2.

भूवादयोधातवः

bhūvādayodhātavaḥ

Every verbal root listed in the Dhātupāṭha, beginning with bhū ('to be'), is termed dhātu, 'root.' This opens the grammar's long section on verbal roots — bhavati, paṭhati, vāti all instance the category.

उपदेशेऽजनुनासिक इत्

upadeśe'janunāsika it

When a nasalized vowel occurs in the original teaching (upadeśa) of a root or item, that vowel is termed it, a marker that serves only to trigger a rule and is itself elided.

हलन्तयम्

halantayam

In the original teaching, a word-final consonant (hal) is likewise termed it — the r of anīyar, the p of lyap, and the c of tṛc are each such markers.

नविभक्तौतुस्माः

navibhaktautusmāḥ

An exception to 3.3: a t-class consonant, s, or m occurring at the end of a case- or verb-ending is not treated as it — the s of bālaka + as is not elided, giving bālakāḥ.

आदिर्ञिटुडवः

ādirñiṭuḍavaḥ

The initial elements ñi, ṭu, and ḍu, when attached to the start of a root or affix in the original teaching, are themselves termed it and drop away — ñimidā becomes mid, ḍukṛñ becomes kṛ.

षःप्रत्ययस्य

ṣaḥpratyayasya

An initial ṣ at the start of an affix is likewise termed it and elided, as in ṣyañ becoming simply ya.

चुटू

cuṭū

An initial consonant of the c-class or ṭ-class at the start of an affix is likewise termed it — the j of jas is elided, leaving as.

लशक्वतद्धिते

laśakvataddhite

Excluding taddhita affixes, an initial l, ś, or k-class consonant at the start of any other affix is likewise termed it, as when śas becomes simply as.

तस्यलोपः

tasyalopaḥ

Whatever has been designated it (by 3.2-3.8) is elided outright — the entire point of the it-system. Vuk leaves only v, and su leaves only s.

यथासंख्यमनुदेशःसमानाम्

yathāsaṁkhyamanudeśaḥsamānām

When a rule lists an equal number of replaced items and their substitutes, they are paired off in the same serial order (yathāsaṅkhya) — first with first, second with second — rather than arbitrarily.

स्वरितेनाधिकारः

svaritenādhikāraḥ

A word marked with the svarita pitch-accent signals an adhikāra, 'governing term' — one that carries forward (by anuvṛtti) into a whole run of following rules until explicitly cancelled, as with pratyayaḥ, paraśca, dhātoḥ, and aṅgasya.

अनुदात्तङित आत्मनेपदम्

anudāttaṅita ātmanepadam

A root whose indicatory vowel is anudātta (low-pitched), or which is marked ṅit, takes ātmanepada endings — the opening general rule of this long section on voice assignment, illustrated by edh giving edhate.

भावकर्मणोः

bhāvakarmaṇoḥ

Whenever a tense-ending is prescribed in the impersonal (bhāva) or passive (karma) voice, ātmanepada is used, regardless of the root's ordinary voice — āsyate devadattena, devadattena vedaḥ paṭhyate.

कर्तरिकर्मव्यतिहारे

kartarikarmavyatihāre

In the active voice, when the action expresses mutual exchange between agents (kartṛ-vyatihāra) — typically marked by the prefix vi or ati — ātmanepada is used even for an active-voice sense.

नगतिहिंसार्थेभ्यः

nagatihiṁsārthebhyaḥ

An exception to 3.14: roots whose basic sense is 'motion' or 'violence' do not take ātmanepada even in this mutual-exchange sense.

इतरेतरान्योन्योपपदाच्च

itaretarānyonyopapadācca

Ātmanepada is likewise used when the verb combines with the words itaretara or anyonya ('one another'), expressing mutual exchange of action — itaretarasya vyatilunanti.

नेर्विशः

nerviśaḥ

Preceded by the prefix ni, the root viś ('to enter') always takes ātmanepada, as in niviśate.

परिव्यवेभ्यःक्रियः

parivyavebhyaḥkriyaḥ

Preceded by pari, vi, or ava, the root krī ('to buy') takes ātmanepada.

विपराभ्यांजेः

viparābhyāṁjeḥ

Preceded by vi or parā, the root ji ('to conquer') takes ātmanepada, as in vijayate.

आङ्गोदोऽनास्यविहरणे

āṅgodo'nāsyaviharaṇe

Preceded by āṅ (ā), the root dā takes ātmanepada — except in the specific sense 'to open the mouth,' where only parasmaipada is used, as in vidyām ādatte ('he grasps knowledge').

क्रीडोऽनुसंपरिभ्यश्र्च्

krīḍo'nusaṁparibhyaśrc

Preceded by anu, sam, or pari, the root krīḍ ('to play') takes ātmanepada — anukrīḍate, saṃkrīḍate, parikrīḍate.

समवप्रविभ्यःस्थः

samavapravibhyaḥsthaḥ

Preceded by sam, ava, pra, or vi, the root sthā ('to stand') takes ātmanepada, as in saṃtiṣṭhate.

प्रकाशनस्थेयाख्ययोश्च

prakāśanastheyākhyayośca

The root sthā also takes ātmanepada (even without a prefix) when it means 'to reveal one's own view' or 'to declare the outcome of a dispute,' as in vidyā tiṣṭhate chātrāya.

उदोऽनूध्र्वकर्मणि

udo'nūdhrvakarmaṇi

Preceded by ut, sthā takes ātmanepada in a figurative sense of 'to prosper, rise' rather than the literal 'stand up,' as in gehe uttiṣṭhate.

उपान्मन्त्रकरणे

upānmantrakaraṇe

Preceded by upa, sthā takes ātmanepada when it means 'to approach while reciting a Vedic verse,' as in aindryā gārhapatyam upatiṣṭhate.

अकर्मकाच्च्

akarmakācc

Preceded by upa, sthā also takes ātmanepada when used intransitively, as in yāvadbhuktam upatiṣṭhate.

उद्विभ्यांतपः

udvibhyāṁtapaḥ

Preceded by ut or vi, the intransitive root tap ('to heat') takes ātmanepada, as in uttapate, vitapate.

आङ्गोयमहनः

āṅgoyamahanaḥ

Preceded by āṅ, the intransitive roots yam and han take ātmanepada — āyacchate, āhate.

समोगम्यृच्छिप्रच्छिस्वरत्यर्तिश्रुविदिभ्यः

samogamyṛcchipracchisvaratyartiśruvidibhyaḥ

Preceded by sam, the intransitive roots gam, ṛcch, pracch, svṛ, ṛ, śru and vid take ātmanepada — saṅgacchate, samṛcchate, and so on.

निसमुपविभ्योह्वः

nisamupavibhyohvaḥ

Preceded by ni, sam, upa, or vi, the root hve ('to call') takes ātmanepada — nihvayate, saṃhvayate, upahvayate.

स्पर्धायामाडः

spardhāyāmāḍaḥ

Preceded by āṅ, hve takes ātmanepada when it means 'to challenge in rivalry,' as in mallo mallam āhvayate.

गन्धनावक्षेपणसेवनसाहसिक्यप्रतियत्नप्रकथनोपयोगेषुकृञः

gandhanāvakṣepaṇasevanasāhasikyapratiyatnaprakathanopayogeṣukṛñaḥ

The root kṛ ('to do') takes ātmanepada in seven specific senses: reporting/complaining, rebuking, serving, acting rashly, emulating another's qualities, narrating at length, and putting to use.

अधेःप्रसहने

adheḥprasahane

Preceded by adhi, kṛ takes ātmanepada in the sense 'to overpower,' as in śatrum adhikurute.

वेःशब्दकर्मणः

veḥśabdakarmaṇaḥ

Preceded by vi, kṛ takes ātmanepada when its object is śabda ('sound'), as in kroṣṭā vikurute svarān ('the jackal distorts its cries').

अकर्मकाच्च

akarmakācca

Preceded by vi, kṛ also takes ātmanepada when used intransitively, as in vikurvate saindhavāḥ.

संमाननोत्संजनाचार्यकरणज्ञानभृतिविगणनव्ययेषुनियः

saṁmānanotsaṁjanācāryakaraṇajñānabhṛtivigaṇanavyayeṣuniyaḥ

The root nī ('to lead') takes ātmanepada in seven specific senses: honouring, raising up, taking as one's teacher, knowing, paying wages, settling a debt, or spending for a pious purpose.

कतृस्थे चाशरीरे कर्मणि

katṛsthe cāśarīre karmaṇi

When the object of nī resides within the agent but is not the agent's own body (an inner state, say), ātmanepada is used even in the active sense — krodhaṃ vinayate ('he dispels his own anger').

वृत्तिसर्गतायनेषुक्रमः

vṛttisargatāyaneṣukramaḥ

The root kram ('to step, proceed') takes ātmanepada in the senses of uninterrupted flow, eager exertion, or extension, as in mantreṣu asya kramate buddhiḥ.

उपपराभ्याम्

upaparābhyām

In the same senses as 3.38, kram preceded by upa or parā likewise takes ātmanepada — upakramate, parākramate.

आङ्ग् उद्गमने

āṅg udgamane

Preceded by āṅ, kram takes ātmanepada in the sense 'to rise' (as of the sun), as in āditya ākramate.

वेःपादविहरणे

veḥpādaviharaṇe

Preceded by vi, kram takes ātmanepada in the sense 'to stride forward,' as in vikramate vājī.

प्रोपाभ्यांसमर्थाभ्याम्

propābhyāṁsamarthābhyām

When pra and upa are used in the same sense (as of beginning to eat), kram preceded by either takes ātmanepada — prakramate bhuktum, upakramate bhoktum.

अनुपसर्गाद्वा

anupasargādvā

Even without a prefix, kram may optionally take ātmanepada — kramate alongside the ordinary krāmati.

अपह्नवेज्ञः

apahnavejñaḥ

The root jñā ('to know') takes ātmanepada in the sense 'to deny, disavow,' as in apajānīte.

अकर्मकाच्च

akarmakācca

The root jñā also takes ātmanepada when used intransitively, as in sarpiṣo jānīte.

संप्रतिभ्यामनाध्याने

saṁpratibhyāmanādhyāne

Preceded by sam or prati, transitive jñā takes ātmanepada, provided it does not mean 'to recall anxiously' — śataṃ saṃjānīte / pratijānīte ('he pledges a hundred').

भासनोपसंभाषाज्ञानयत्नविमत्युपमन्त्रणेषुवदः

bhāsanopasaṁbhāṣājñānayatnavimatyupamantraṇeṣuvadaḥ

The root vad ('to speak') takes ātmanepada in six senses: to shine forth/reflect, to console, to know, to strive, to disagree, or to invite — śāstre vadate.

व्यक्तवाचांसमुच्चारणे

vyaktavācāṁsamuccāraṇe

Vad takes ātmanepada in the sense 'to speak together' among articulate speakers, as in sampravadante brāhmaṇāḥ.

अनोरकर्मकात्

anorakarmakāt

In the same sense, vad preceded by anu and used intransitively likewise takes ātmanepada, as in anuvadate kaṭhaḥ kalāpasya.

विभाषाविप्रलापे

vibhāṣāvipralāpe

When the joint speaking involves mutual disagreement (vipralāpa), vad optionally takes ātmanepada, giving vipravadante alongside vipravadanti.

अवाद् ग्रः

avād graḥ

Preceded by ava, the root gṛ ('to swallow') takes ātmanepada, as in avagirate.

समःप्रतिज्ञाने

samaḥpratijñāne

Preceded by sam, gṛ takes ātmanepada in the sense 'to affirm, acknowledge,' as in śabdaṃ saṃgirate.

उदश्र्चरःसकर्मकात्

udaśrcaraḥsakarmakāt

Preceded by ut, the transitive root car ('to move, conduct oneself') takes ātmanepada, as in dharmam uccarate.

समस्तृतीयायुक्तात्

samastṛtīyāyuktāt

Preceded by sam, car takes ātmanepada when accompanied by an instrumental-case word, as in rathena saṃcarate.

दाणश्र्चसाचेच्चतुथ्र्यर्थे

dāṇaśrcasāceccatuthryarthe

If that instrumental-case word actually functions in a dative sense, then even the normally parasmaipada root dā ('to give'), preceded by sam, takes ātmanepada.

उपाद्यमःस्वकरणे

upādyamaḥsvakaraṇe

Preceded by upa, yam takes ātmanepada in the specific sense 'to take a bride's hand in marriage,' as in kanyām upayacchate.

ज्ञाश्रुस्मृदृशांसनः

jñāśrusmṛdṛśāṁsanaḥ

The desiderative (san-suffixed) forms of jñā, śru, smṛ, and dṛś take ātmanepada — jijñāsate ('he wishes to know'), śuśrūṣate ('he wishes to hear'/obey).

नानोर्ज्ञः

nānorjñaḥ

An exception to 3.57: the desiderative of jñā does not take ātmanepada when preceded by anu, as in putram anujijñāsati.

प्रत्याङ्ग्भ्वांश्रुवः

pratyāṅgbhvāṁśruvaḥ

The desiderative of śru likewise does not take ātmanepada when preceded by prati or āṅ — pratiśuśrūṣati, āśuśrūṣati.

शदेः शितः

śadeḥ śitaḥ

The root śad ('to fail, perish') takes ātmanepada when the following ending is marked śit, as in śīyate.

म्रियतेर्लुङ् लिङोश्र्च

mriyaterluṅ liṅośrca

The root mṛ ('to die') takes ātmanepada especially in the śit-marked present (mriyate) and in the aorist (luṅ) and optative (liṅ), as in amṛta and mriyeta.

पूर्ववत्सनः

pūrvavatsanaḥ

In a desiderative (san) formation, the choice of ātmanepada or parasmaipada follows whatever the underlying root itself takes — edhitum icchati, since edh is parasmaipada.

आम्प्रत्ययवत्कृञोऽनुप्रयोगस्य

āmpratyayavatkṛño'nuprayogasya

In the periphrastic construction, when the auxiliary kṛ follows a root that has taken the ām ending, kṛ's voice matches the original root's voice — edhāṃ cakre, since edh is ātmanepada.

प्रोपाभ्यांयुजेरयज्ञपात्रेषु

propābhyāṁyujerayajñapātreṣu

Preceded by pra or upa, the root yuj ('to yoke, employ') takes ātmanepada, except in reference to sacrificial vessels — prayuṅkte, upayuṅkte.

समः क्ष्णुवः

samaḥ kṣṇuvaḥ

Preceded by sam, the root kṣṇu ('to sharpen') takes ātmanepada, as in saṃkṣṇute.

भुजोऽनवने

bhujo'navane

The root bhuj takes ātmanepada except in the sense 'to protect, rule over' — bhuṅkte ('he eats/enjoys') versus the parasmaipada nṛpaḥ rājyaṃ bhunakti ('the king rules the kingdom').

णेरणौयत्कर्मणौचेत्सकर्तानाध्याने

ṇeraṇauyatkarmaṇaucetsakartānādhyāne

In a causative formation, when the underlying action remains the same and the original object becomes the causative's own agent, ātmanepada is used (barring the 'anxious recollection' sense) — hastipā hastinam ārohayate.

भीस्म्योर्हेतुभये

bhīsmyorhetubhaye

The causatives of bhī ('to fear') and smi ('to be amazed') take ātmanepada when the sense is 'to cause fear/amazement,' as in muṇḍo bhīṣyate, jaṭilo vismāpayate.

गृधि-वञ्च्योः प्रलम्भने

gṛdhi-vañcyoḥ pralambhane

The causatives of gṛdh ('to covet') and vañc ('to deceive') take ātmanepada in the sense 'to swindle by false promise,' as in māṇavakaṃ gardhayate, māṇavakaṃ vañcayate.

लियःसंमाननशालीनीकरणयोश्र्च्

liyaḥsaṁmānanaśālīnīkaraṇayośrc

The causative of lī ('to cling, merge') takes ātmanepada in the senses 'to honour' or 'to lead astray,' as in jaṭābhiḥ ālāpayate.

मिथ्योपपदात्कृञोऽभ्यासे

mithyopapadātkṛño'bhyāse

The causative of kṛ takes ātmanepada when combined with mithyā ('wrongly') in the sense of repeated mis-performance, as in padaṃ mithyā kārayate.

स्वरितञितःकर्त्रभिप्रायेक्रियाफले

svaritañitaḥkartrabhiprāyekriyāphale

A root marked with a svarita indicatory vowel, or marked ñit, takes ātmanepada when the fruit of the action is meant for the agent himself — again prescribing the taṅ, śānac and kānac endings.

अपाद्वदः

apādvadaḥ

Preceded by apa, vad takes ātmanepada when the fruit of speaking accrues to the speaker himself, as in dhanakāmo nyāyam apavadate.

णिचश्र्च

ṇicaśrca

A causative-formed verb likewise takes ātmanepada when the fruit of the action reverts to the agent himself.

समुदाङ्ग्भ्योयमोऽग्रन्थे

samudāṅgbhyoyamo'granthe

Preceded by sam, ut, or āṅ, the root yam takes ātmanepada when the fruit accrues to the agent and the sense is not that of composing a text, as in vrīhīn saṃyacchate.

अनुपसर्गाज्ज्ञः

anupasargājjñaḥ

The root jñā, unprefixed, takes ātmanepada when the fruit of knowing benefits the agent himself, as in gāṃ jānīte.

विभाषोपपदेनप्रतीयमाने

vibhāṣopapadenapratīyamāne

When some other word in the sentence already makes clear that the fruit belongs to the agent, the ātmanepada of 3.72-3.76 becomes merely optional — svayaṃ yajñaṃ yajate alongside yajati.

शेषात्कर्तरिपरस्मैपदम्

śeṣātkartariparasmaipadam

In every remaining case not covered by the preceding special rules, parasmaipada is used in the active voice — the general default closing this long run of ātmanepada exceptions, illustrated by yāti, vāti.

अनुपराभ्यां कृञः

anuparābhyāṁ kṛñaḥ

Preceded by anu or parā, kṛ takes parasmaipada even in senses (like 'to report') that would otherwise call for ātmanepada — an exception carved out of 3.32.

Note: Both sources garbled the sandhi here (bare: 'पराभ्तां'; commentary matches structurally but with typos); corrected to the standard reading 'अनुपराभ्यां कृञः'.

अभिप्रत्यतिभ्यःक्षिपः

abhipratyatibhyaḥkṣipaḥ

Preceded by abhi, prati, or ati, the root kṣip ('to throw') takes parasmaipada, as in abhikṣipati.

प्राद्वहः

prādvahaḥ

Preceded by pra, the root vah ('to carry') takes parasmaipada, as in pravahati.

परेर्मृषः

parermṛṣaḥ

Preceded by pari, the root mṛṣ ('to endure') takes parasmaipada, as in parimṛṣyati.

व्याङ्ग्परिभ्योरमः

vyāṅgparibhyoramaḥ

Preceded by vi, āṅ, or pari, the root ram ('to delight, sport') takes parasmaipada — viramati, āramati, pariramati.

उपाच्च्

upācc

Preceded by upa, ram likewise takes parasmaipada, as in uparamati.

विभाषाकर्मकात्

vibhāṣākarmakāt

Preceded by upa and used intransitively, ram optionally takes parasmaipada, giving yāvadbhuktam uparamati alongside uparamate.

बुधयुधनशजनेङ्प्रुद्रुस्रुभ्यो णेः

budhayudhanaśajaneṅprudrusrubhyo ṇeḥ

The causative forms of budh, yudh, naś, jan, i, pru, dru, and sru take parasmaipada — bodhayati, yodhayati, nāśayati, janayati, among others.

Note: Commentary edition read 'स्त्रभ्यो' (garbled) and omitted the final visarga; corrected to the standard reading 'बुधयुधनशजनेङ्प्रुद्रुस्रुभ्यो णेः' using the bare edition's word list.

निगरणचलनार्थेभ्यश्र्च्

nigaraṇacalanārthebhyaśrc

The causatives of roots meaning 'to swallow' or 'to move, shake' likewise take parasmaipada, as in nigārayati, cālayati.

अणावकर्मकाच्चित्तवत्कर्तृकात्

aṇāvakarmakāccittavatkartṛkāt

When a root is intransitive in its base form and takes a sentient agent, its causative form takes parasmaipada — āste devadattaḥ ('Devadatta sits') gives the causative āsayati ('he seats him').

नपादभ्याङ्गयमाङ्गयसपरिमुहरुचिनृतिवदवसः

napādabhyāṅgayamāṅgayasaparimuharucinṛtivadavasaḥ

An exception to 3.88: the causatives of pā, dam, āṅ-yam, yas, pari-muh, ruc, nṛt, vad, and vas do not take parasmaipada — they keep ātmanepada, as in pāyayate, damayate.

वाक्यषः

vākyaṣaḥ

The causative of a denominative verb formed with kyaṣ optionally takes parasmaipada, giving lohitāyati alongside lohitāyate.

द्यद्भयोलुङि

dyadbhayoluṅi

Roots of the dyut-group optionally take parasmaipada in the luṅ (aorist), giving adyutat alongside the middle-voice adyotiṣṭa.

वृद्भयःस्यसनोः

vṛdbhayaḥsyasanoḥ

The roots vṛt, vṛdh, śṛdh, syand, and kṛp optionally take parasmaipada before the future-tense affix sya and the desiderative san, giving vartsyati alongside vartiṣyate.

लुटिचकॢपः

luṭicakḷpaḥ

The root kḷp ('to be capable') likewise optionally takes parasmaipada in the periphrastic future (luṭ) as well as before sya and san, giving kalptā, kalpsyati, cikḷpsati. This closes Pada 1.3's long treatment of ātmanepada/parasmaipada assignment.

आकडारादेकासंज्ञा

ākaḍārādekāsaṁjñā

Up through the word kaḍāra (1.4.61), the technical designations about to be introduced apply one at a time to any given word — this rule also governs the initial division between bha-designation and pada-designation.

विप्रतिषेधेपरंकार्यम्

vipratiṣedheparaṁkāryam

When two rules genuinely conflict over the same case, the one occurring later in the text prevails. This is one of the grammar's most important interpretive principles, invoked throughout the Ashtadhyayi to resolve rule-conflicts.

यूस्त्र्याख्यौनदी

yūstryākhyaunadī

Words ending in long ī or ū that occur exclusively in the feminine gender are termed nadī, 'river-class' — a designation that governs how their case-endings behave.

नेयङ्गुवङ्ग्स्थानावस्त्री

neyaṅguvaṅgsthānāvastrī

An exception to 4.3: when the long ī or ū would trigger the substitutes iyaṅ or uvaṅ, it is not termed nadī — except in the word strī itself — as in he śrīḥ, he bhrūḥ.

वाऽऽमि

vā''mi

An exception to 4.4: before the genitive plural ām, such a long ī or ū may optionally be termed nadī after all, giving pairs like śriyām / śrīṇām and bhruvām / bhrūṇām.

ङिति ह्रस्वश्च

ṅiti hrasvaśca

Before a ṅit-marked affix, both the long ī/ū of 4.4-4.5 and a short i/u in an exclusively-feminine word may optionally be termed nadī.

शेषोध्यसखि

śeṣodhyasakhi

Apart from the word sakhi, every other word ending in short i or short u (in any gender) is termed ghi — as in ravi, kavi, vāri, śambhu, guru.

पतिःसमासएव्

patiḥsamāsaev

The word pati ('lord, husband') is termed ghi only when it occurs inside a compound, not on its own — prajāpatinā, prajāpataye.

षष्ठीयुक्तश्छन्दसिवा

ṣaṣṭhīyuktaśchandasivā

In Vedic usage, pati may optionally be termed ghi even outside a compound, when linked to a genitive-case word, as in kuluñcānāṃ pataye / patye namaḥ.

ह्रस्वंलघु

hrasvaṁlaghu

A short (one-mora) vowel is termed laghu, 'light' — a designation important both for guṇa/vṛddhi rules and for Vedic metrics.

संयोगेगुरु

saṁyogeguru

A short vowel immediately followed by a consonant cluster is nonetheless termed guru, 'heavy,' despite its inherent shortness — as with the a in haṭṭa.

दीर्घं च

dīrghaṁ ca

Every long vowel is likewise termed guru, quite apart from any following consonant cluster.

यस्मात्प्रत्ययविधिस्तदादिप्रत्ययेऽङ्गम्

yasmātpratyayavidhistadādipratyaye'ṅgam

Whatever a suffix is prescribed to attach to is termed aṅga, 'stem,' before that suffix and everything following it — bhavati = bhū + śap + ti.

सुप्तिङन्तं पदम्

suptiṅantaṁ padam

A word-form ending in a sup (nominal) or tiṅ (verbal) ending is termed pada, 'word' — the foundation for a whole range of sentence-level rules like sandhi and accent, illustrated by bālaḥ and paṭhati.

नःक्ये

naḥkye

A word ending in n that takes the denominative suffix kyac, kyaṅ, or kyaṣ is also termed pada, as in vācyati.

सितिच्

sitic

A stem is also termed pada before an affix whose s is marked as indicatory (sit), as in bhavadīyaḥ, ūrṇāyuḥ.

स्वादिष्वसर्वनामस्थाने

svādiṣvasarvanāmasthāne

Excluding the sarvanāmasthāna endings, a stem is termed pada before any of the nominal endings from su through kap, as with viśvapā in viśvapā + as.

यचिभम्

yacibham

Excluding the suṭ endings, a stem is termed bha before an ending beginning with y or with a vowel — the second half of the pada/bha division set up in 4.1, illustrated by gārgyaḥ, vātsyaḥ.

तसौमत्वर्थे

tasaumatvarthe

A stem ending in t or s is likewise termed bha before an affix conveying possession (like matup), the mark of 'having X.'

अयस्मयादीनि छन्दसि

ayasmayādīni chandasi

In Vedic usage, forms like ayasmaya ('made of iron') and similar words are accepted as grammatically valid even where they do not strictly follow the regular derivational rules.

बहुषुबहुवचनम्

bahuṣubahuvacanam

When more than two entities are meant, plural endings are used — the opening rule of this brief section on grammatical number, illustrated by brāhmaṇāḥ paṭhanti.

द्वयेकयोर्द्विवचनैकवचने

dvayekayordvivacanaikavacane

For two entities, the dual ending is used; for one, the singular — brāhmaṇau paṭhataḥ, brāhmaṇaḥ paṭhati. With this, the short opening run of designation-rules closes, and the grammar's great section on kāraka (case-relation) theory begins.

कारके

kārake

This single-word rule establishes kāraka ('case-relation, participant role') as the governing term carrying forward through the long section that follows. This opens Panini's celebrated theory of kāraka, one of the most original achievements in the history of linguistics.

ध्रुवमपायेऽपादानम्

dhruvamapāye'pādānam

The fixed point from which something moves away is termed apādāna, 'ablative source' — as in grāmād āyāti ('he comes from the village'), where the village stays put while the subject separates from it.

भीत्रार्थानांभयहेतुः

bhītrārthānāṁbhayahetuḥ

With roots meaning 'to fear' or 'to protect,' the source of the fear is also termed apādāna, as in coribhyo bibheti ('he fears the thieves').

पराजेरसोढः

parājerasoḍhaḥ

With the root ji ('to conquer') preceded by parā, the thing one cannot withstand is termed apādāna, as in adhyayanāt parājayate ('he gives up on study').

वारणार्थानामीप्सितः

vāraṇārthānāmīpsitaḥ

With roots meaning 'to ward off,' the thing being warded off from is termed apādāna, as in yavebhyo gāṃ vārayati ('he keeps the cow away from the barley').

अन्तधौयेनादर्शनमिच्छति

antadhauyenādarśanamicchati

In the sense of 'concealing oneself,' the person from whom one wishes to be unseen is termed apādāna, as in upādhyāyād antardhatte ('he hides from his teacher').

आख्यातोपयोगे

ākhyātopayoge

In the sense of 'systematically receiving instruction,' the teacher one learns from is termed apādāna, as in upādhyāyād adhīte.

जनिकर्तुः प्रकृतिः

janikartuḥ prakṛtiḥ

With the root jan ('to be born, arise'), the material source from which the subject arises is termed apādāna, as in śṛṅgāt śaro jāyate ('an arrow is made from horn').

भुवःप्रभवः

bhuvaḥprabhavaḥ

With the root bhū in the sense 'to originate, arise,' the place of origin is termed apādāna, as in himavato gaṅgā prabhavati ('the Ganges rises from the Himalayas').

कर्मणायमभिप्रैतिससंप्रदानम्

karmaṇāyamabhipraitisasaṁpradānam

The person whom the agent, through the object of a giving-action, intends to connect with is termed sampradāna, 'recipient' — the basis of the dative case — as in viprāya gāṃ dadāti.

रुच्यर्थानांप्रीयमाणः

rucyarthānāṁprīyamāṇaḥ

With roots meaning 'to please, be liked,' the person who is pleased is termed sampradāna, as in devadattāya rocate modakaḥ.

श्लाघ ह्नुङ् स्था-शपां ज्ञीप्स्यमानः

ślāgha hnuṅ sthā-śapāṁ jñīpsyamānaḥ

With the roots ślāgh ('to praise'), hnu ('to deny'), sthā (asserting), and śap ('to swear'), the person meant to be informed is termed sampradāna, as in devadattāya ślāghate.

धारेरुत्तमर्णः

dhāreruttamarṇaḥ

With the root dhṛ in the sense 'to hold as a debt,' the creditor is termed sampradāna, as in devadattāya śataṃ dhārayati yajñadattaḥ.

स्पृहे रीप्सितः

spṛhe rīpsitaḥ

With the root spṛh ('to long for'), the desired object is termed sampradāna, as in puṣpebhyaḥ spṛhayati.

क्रुधद्रुहेर्ष्यासूयार्थानां यं प्रति कोपः

krudhadruherṣyāsūyārthānāṁ yaṁ prati kopaḥ

With roots meaning 'to be angry,' 'to bear malice,' 'to envy,' or 'to be spiteful,' the target of that feeling is termed sampradāna, as in devadattāya krudhyati.

क्रुधद्रुहोरुपसृष्टयोःकर्मः

krudhadruhorupasṛṣṭayoḥkarmaḥ

An exception to 4.37: when krudh or druh is prefixed, the target is termed karma ('object'), not sampradāna, as in devadattam abhikrudhyati.

राधीक्ष्योर्यस्यविप्रश्र्न

rādhīkṣyoryasyavipraśrna

With the roots rādh ('to succeed') and īkṣ ('to look into'), the person whose situation is being repeatedly inquired into is termed sampradāna, as in devadattāya rādhyati.

प्रत्याङ्ग्भ्यांश्रुवःपूर्वस्यकर्ता

pratyāṅgbhyāṁśruvaḥpūrvasyakartā

With śru ('to promise') preceded by prati or āṅ, the person to whom an earlier commitment was made is termed sampradāna, as in yajñadattaḥ devadattāya pratiśṛṇoti.

अनुप्रतिगृणश्र्च

anupratigṛṇaśrca

The same holds for gṛ ('to acknowledge') preceded by anu or prati — hotre anugṛṇāti.

साधकतमंकरणम्

sādhakatamaṁkaraṇam

The most instrumental means by which an action is accomplished is termed karaṇa, 'instrument' — the basis of the instrumental case — as with the arrow in rāmeṇa bāṇena hato vālī.

दिवःकर्मच

divaḥkarmaca

With the root div ('to gamble'), the most instrumental element may be termed either karma or karaṇa, giving both akṣān dīvyati (object) and akṣair dīvyati (instrument).

परिक्रयणेसंप्रदानमन्यतरस्याम्

parikrayaṇesaṁpradānamanyatarasyām

In the sense of 'the price paid,' the most instrumental element may optionally be termed sampradāna instead of karaṇa, giving śatāya parikrīto'nubrūhi alongside śatena parikrīto'nubrūhi.

आधारोऽधिकरणम्

ādhāro'dhikaraṇam

The locus in which an action takes place is termed adhikaraṇa, 'locative' — the basis of the locative case — as in kaṭe āste ('he sits on the mat').

अधिशीङ्ग्स्थाऽऽसांकर्म

adhiśīṅgsthā''sāṁkarma

An exception to 4.45: with śīṅ ('to lie'), sthā ('to stand'), and ās ('to sit') preceded by adhi, the locus is termed karma, not adhikaraṇa — grāmam adhiśete, parvatam adhyāste.

अभिनिविशश्र्च

abhiniviśaśrca

The same holds for viś ('to enter') preceded by abhi or ni — grāmam abhiniviśate.

उपान्वध्याङ्ग्वसः

upānvadhyāṅgvasaḥ

The same holds for vas ('to dwell') preceded by upa, anu, adhi, or āṅ — grāmam upavasati, anuvasati.

कर्तुरीप्सिततमं कर्म

karturīpsitatamaṁ karma

The thing the agent most wants to attain through the action is termed karma, 'object' — the basis of the accusative case — as in devadattaḥ odanaṃ pacati.

तथायुक्तंचानीप्सितम्

tathāyuktaṁcānīpsitam

Something acted upon in the same way, even though not desired by the agent, is also termed karma, as in viṣaṃ bhakṣayati ('he eats poison,' unwittingly).

अकथितं च

akathitaṁ ca

A participant not explicitly named by apādāna, sampradāna, or another specific term is nonetheless also termed karma — commonly seen with double-object verbs, as in gāṃ dogdhi payaḥ.

गतिबुद्धिप्रत्यवसानार्थशब्दकर्माकर्मकाणामणिकर्तासणौ

gatibuddhipratyavasānārthaśabdakarmākarmakāṇāmaṇikartāsaṇau

With roots of motion, cognition, eating, speaking, or intransitive action, the original agent becomes the karma (object) once the verb is causativized — gacchati māṇavakaḥ gives the causative gamayati māṇavakam.

ह्रक्रोरन्यतरस्याम्

hrakroranyatarasyām

For hṛ ('to carry') and kṛ ('to do'), the rule of 4.52 applies only optionally, as in hārayati māṇavakaṃ bhāram alongside hārayati bhāraṃ māṇavakena.

स्वतन्त्रःकर्ता

svatantraḥkartā

The kāraka that is svatantra ('independent,' the principal in performing the action) is termed kartṛ, 'agent' — the opening rule of this final kāraka subsection, illustrated by devadatto gacchati.

तत्प्रयोजकोहेतुश्र्च

tatprayojakohetuśrca

One who instigates another agent to perform the action is termed hetu, 'causer,' and is grammatically treated as a kartṛ in its own right — the foundation for causative (ṇic) constructions, as in devadattaḥ yajñadattena odanaṃ pācayati.

प्रागैश्वरान्निपाताः

prāgaiśvarānnipātāḥ

The words to be enumerated from here up through the sutra containing īśvare (1.4.97) are termed nipāta, 'particle' — opening a new subsection on prefixes and particles that follows the kāraka theory, illustrated by ca, vā, ha, aha. (Note: both source witnesses garbled this sutra's sandhi differently; the reading here follows the standard derivation — see review_note.)

Note: Bare edition had 'प्राक्=इश्वरात्=निपा तः' and commentary had 'प्राग्ग्रीश्र्वरान्निपाताः' (both garbled); corrected via the standard sandhi derivation prāk + aiśvarāt + nipātāḥ (k+ai -> gai) to 'प्रागैश्वरान्निपाताः', matching the boundary marker referenced by this sutra and confirmed by 1.4.97 containing īśvare.

चादयोऽसत्त्वे

cādayo'sattve

Words listed in the ca-group are termed nipāta when they do not denote a concrete substance but function as indeclinable particles.

प्रादयः

prādayaḥ

The twenty-two prefixes (pra, parā, apa, sam, anu, ava, nis, nir, dus, dur, vi, āṅ, ni, adhi, api, ati, su, ut, abhi, prati, pari, upa) are likewise termed nipāta when not denoting a substance.

उपसर्गाःक्रियायोगे

upasargāḥkriyāyoge

The same twenty-two words are termed upasarga, 'preverb,' when combined with a verb — this is the grammar's formal definition of a verbal prefix.

गतिश्र्च

gatiśrca

These same words, in combination with a verb, are also termed gati — a second, overlapping designation that underlies further rules of compounding and accent.

ऊर्यादिच्विडाचश्र्च्

ūryādicviḍācaśrc

The word ūrī and similar terms, along with words formed with the suffixes cvi and ḍāc, are also termed gati in combination with a verb, as in ūrīkṛtya ('having accepted').

अनुकरणंचानितिपरम्

anukaraṇaṁcānitiparam

An onomatopoeic word, when not followed by iti, is likewise termed gati in combination with a verb.

आदरानादरयोःसदसती

ādarānādarayoḥsadasatī

The words sat and asat, used respectively for 'respect' and 'disrespect,' are termed gati in combination with a verb.

भूषणेऽलम्

bhūṣaṇe'lam

The word alam is termed gati (in combination with a verb) when it means 'adornment.'

अन्तरपरिग्रहे

antaraparigrahe

The word antar is termed gati when it conveys the sense of 'not accepting, excluding.'

कणेमनसीश्रद्धाप्रतीघाते

kaṇemanasīśraddhāpratīghāte

The words kaṇe and manasi are termed gati when they express the failure or breaking of faith/trust.

पुरोऽव्ययम्

puro'vyayam

The indeclinable word puras ('in front') is likewise termed gati in combination with a verb.

अस्तंच

astaṁca

The indeclinable word astam ('to setting, disappearance') is also termed gati, as in astaṃgatāni dhanāni.

अच्छगत्यर्थवदेषु

acchagatyarthavadeṣu

The word accha ('toward'), when placed before a verb of motion or the root vad, is termed gati.

अदोऽनुपदेशे

ado'nupadeśe

The word adas is termed gati in combination with a verb, apart from the sense of formal instruction.

तिरोऽन्तधौ

tiro'ntadhau

The word tiras is termed gati when it conveys the sense of 'concealment, interposition,' as in tiraskṛtya / tiraḥkṛtya.

विभाषाकृञि

vibhāṣākṛñi

Before the root kṛ specifically, the gati status of tiras is only optional, giving alternate forms like upāje kṛtya alongside upāje kṛtvā.

उपाजेऽन्वाजे

upāje'nvāje

Before kṛ, the words upāje and anvāje are termed gati.

साक्षात्प्रभृतीनि च

sākṣātprabhṛtīni ca

Before kṛ, sākṣāt ('directly, in person') and similar words are likewise optionally termed gati.

अनत्याधानौरसिमनसी

anatyādhānaurasimanasī

Barring a special sense of literal placement, the words urasi ('on the chest') and manasi ('in the mind') are termed gati before kṛ.

मध्येपदेनिवचनेच

madhyepadenivacaneca

Under the same condition, madhye ('in the middle'), pade ('in a foothold'), and nivacane are likewise termed gati before kṛ.

नित्यंहस्तेपाणावुपयमने

nityaṁhastepāṇāvupayamane

In the sense of marriage, haste and pāṇau are always (not merely optionally) termed gati before kṛ.

प्राध्वंबन्धने

prādhvaṁbandhane

In the sense of 'binding,' the word prādhvam is termed gati before kṛ.

जीविकोपनिषदावौपम्ये

jīvikopaniṣadāvaupamye

In a sense of comparison, jīvikā and upaniṣad are termed gati before kṛ, as in jīvikākṛtya, upaniṣatkṛtya — closing the long list of gati-words begun at 4.61.

तेप्राग्धातोः

teprāgdhātoḥ

Preverbs and gati-words, as a rule, are placed before the verb — prabhavati, anubhavati.

छन्दसिपरेऽपि

chandasipare'pi

An exception permitted in Vedic usage: such words may follow the verb rather than precede it.

व्यवहिताश्र्च

vyavahitāśrca

Vedic usage also permits such preverbs to be separated from the verb by intervening words — another Vedic license against the general rule of 4.80.

कर्मप्रवचनीयाः

karmapravacanīyāḥ

This word establishes karmapravacanīya ('object-indicating particle,' a special class of case-relation-expressing indeclinables) as the governing term for the rules that follow.

अनुर्लक्षणे

anurlakṣaṇe

The word anu is termed karmapravacanīya when it indicates a sign or landmark, as in nadīm anvavasitā senā.

तृतीयार्थे

tṛtīyārthe

Anu is also termed karmapravacanīya when it conveys an instrumental sense, as in anuśākaṭāyanaṃ vaiyākaraṇāḥ.

हीने

hīne

Anu is termed karmapravacanīya when it expresses deficiency or falling short.

उपोऽधिकेच

upo'dhikeca

The word upa is termed karmapravacanīya in the sense of either deficiency or excess.

अपपरीवर्जने

apaparīvarjane

Apa and pari are termed karmapravacanīya when they express exclusion.

आङ्ग्मर्यादावचने

āṅgmaryādāvacane

Āṅ (ā) is termed karmapravacanīya when it expresses a limit or full extent, as in ā pāṭaliputrād vṛṣṭo devaḥ (limit) and ā kumārebhyo yaśaḥ pāṇineḥ (full extent).

लक्षणेत्थंभूताख्यानभागवीप्सासुप्रतिपर्यनवः

lakṣaṇetthaṁbhūtākhyānabhāgavīpsāsupratiparyanavaḥ

In the four senses of sign/indicator, describing someone's condition, a portion, or distributive repetition, the words prati, pari, and anu are termed karmapravacanīya.

अभिरभागे

abhirabhāge

Abhi is also termed karmapravacanīya in the same three senses of 4.90 (excluding 'portion').

प्रतिःप्रतिनिधिप्रतिदानयोः

pratiḥpratinidhipratidānayoḥ

Prati is termed karmapravacanīya in the senses of substitution and reciprocal exchange.

अधिपरि अनर्थकौ

adhipari anarthakau

Adhi and pari are termed karmapravacanīya even when used without any specific additional meaning of their own.

सुःपूजायाम्

suḥpūjāyām

Su is termed karmapravacanīya when it expresses praise or esteem.

अतिरतिक्रमणेच

atiratikramaṇeca

Ati is termed karmapravacanīya in the senses of both 'exceeding, transgressing' and 'praise.'

अपिः पदार्थसम्भावनान्ववसर्गगर्हासमुच्चेषु

apiḥ padārthasambhāvanānvavasargagarhāsamucceṣu

Api is termed karmapravacanīya in the senses of possibility, granting/consigning, censure, or addition ('as well').

अधिरीश्वरे

adhirīśvare

Adhi is termed karmapravacanīya when it expresses ownership or mastery — this is the very sutra (containing īśvare) that 4.56 pointed to as the boundary of the nipāta list.

Note: Commentary edition had an extra inserted syllable ('अधिरीश्र्वरे'); corrected to the standard reading 'अधिरीश्वरे' matching the boundary this sutra marks (referenced in 4.56).

विभाषाकृञि

vibhāṣākṛñi

Before the root kṛ specifically, adhi is only optionally termed karmapravacanīya.

लःपरस्मैपदम्

laḥparasmaipadam

Of the substitutes for a lakāra (tense/mood marker), nine (tip, tas, jhi, sip, thas, tha, mip, vas, mas) plus śatṛ/kvasu are termed parasmaipada — opening the section on the endings for the active and middle voices.

तङामावात्मनेपदम्

taṅāmāvātmanepadam

The taṅ set of nine endings (from ta to mahiṅ), together with the participial forms in ām (śānac/kānac), are termed ātmanepada — the counterpart to 4.99. (Note: an OCR error in the source rendered the nasal incorrectly; reconstructed from standard sandhi — see review_note.)

Note: Both sources show OCR corruption of the nasal (commentary: 'तड़ानावात्मनेपदम्' with an incorrect nukta consonant in place of ṅ). Corrected via the standard sandhi taṅ + āmau + ātmanepadam -> 'तङामावात्मनेपदम्' (ṅ+ā->ṅā; au+ā->āv, per 6.1.78 eco'yavāyāvaḥ).

तिङस्त्रीणि त्रीणि प्रथममध्यमोत्तमाः

tiṅastrīṇi trīṇi prathamamadhyamottamāḥ

The nine endings each of parasmaipada and ātmanepada are grouped into three sets of three, termed respectively prathama ('first'), madhyama ('second'), and uttama ('speaker') — tip/tas/jhi, sip/thas/tha, mip/vas/mas.

तान्येकवचनद्विवचनबहुवचनान्येकशः

tānyekavacanadvivacanabahuvacanānyekaśaḥ

Within each such set of three, the individual endings are termed ekavacana ('singular'), dvivacana ('dual'), and bahuvacana ('plural') respectively.

सुपः

supaḥ

Nominal (sup) endings are likewise grouped in threes and termed singular, dual, and plural — paṭhataḥ, puruṣān.

विभक्तिश्र्च

vibhaktiśrca

Both sup and tiṅ endings, collectively, are termed vibhakti, 'inflectional ending.'

युष्मद्युपपदे समानाधिकरणे स्थानिन्यपि मध्यमः

yuṣmadyupapade samānādhikaraṇe sthāninyapi madhyamaḥ

When the grammatical subject is yuṣmad ('you'), whether or not that word is actually spoken, the madhyama-puruṣa ('second person') endings are used, as in tvaṃ gacchasi.

प्रहासेचमन्योपपदेमन्यतेरुत्तमएकवच्च्

prahāsecamanyopapademanyateruttamaekavacc

In a playful/mocking sense, with the word manyate ('he thinks') as an accompanying word, the main verb takes the second-person ending while manyate itself takes the first-person singular — a special idiomatic construction.

अस्मद्युत्तमः

asmadyuttamaḥ

When the grammatical subject is asmad ('I/we'), whether or not that word is spoken, the uttama-puruṣa ('first person') endings are used, as in ahaṃ gacchāmi.

शेषेप्रथमः

śeṣeprathamaḥ

In every remaining case (i.e., a third-person subject), the prathama-puruṣa ('third person') endings are used — sa gacchati, rāmaḥ paṭhati — the general default of this brief person/number subsection.

परःसंनिकर्षःसंहिता

paraḥsaṁnikarṣaḥsaṁhitā

The closest possible contiguity between two sounds is termed saṃhitā, 'close conjunction' — the foundational definition underlying every sandhi rule used throughout the remaining chapters, as in vṛkṣaḥ, dadhi.

विरामोऽवसानम्

virāmo'vasānam

Silence — the complete pause at the end of an utterance — is termed avasāna, 'cessation.' This closing sutra of Adhyaya 1 marks the outer boundary of sandhi operations. With it, the grammar's first book — the fourteen Maheshvara Sutras and 351 rules of definition and kāraka theory — comes to a close.

समर्थः पदविधिः

samarthaḥ padavidhiḥ

A rule that operates on a 'pada' (an inflected word) applies only to words that are mutually connected in sense (samartha) — as in 'rajnah purushah' (the king's man), where the two words share a real syntactic bond. This samartha relation is the foundation on which every later rule of compounding and word-formation in this section rests.

सुबामन्त्रिते पराङ्गवत्स्वरे

subāmantrite parāṅgavatsvare

For the purpose of accentuation only, a case-inflected word standing before a vocative (amantrita) word is treated as if it were part of the same stem-unit as that vocative — as though the two padas were fused into a single accentual word.

प्राक्कडारात्समासः

prākkaḍārātsamāsaḥ

This is a governing (adhikara) rule: every sutra from here up to 'kadarah karmadharaye' (2.2.38) is to be understood as teaching some kind of samasa, compound formation.

सह सुपा

saha supā

'Together with' and 'a case-inflected word' both carry forward as governing terms into the following rules: a samasa is formed when one inflected (subanta) word combines with another — as 'rajnah' combines with 'purushah' to give 'rajapurushah', the king's man.

अव्ययीभावः

avyayībhāvaḥ

A governing rule: everything taught from here up to just before 'tatpurushah' (2.1.22) is to be understood as describing the avyayibhava type of compound — a compound whose whole is, grammatically, an indeclinable.

अव्ययं विभक्तिसमीपसमृद्धिव्यृद्ध्यर्थाभावात्ययासम्प्रतिशब्दप्रादुर्भावपश्चाद्यथानुपूर्व्ययौगपद्यसादृश्यसम्पत्तिसाकल्यान्तवचनेषु

avyayaṁ vibhaktisamīpasamṛddhivyṛddhyarthābhāvātyayāsampratiśabdaprādurbhāvapaścādyathānupūrvyayaugapadyasādṛśyasampattisākalyāntavacaneṣu

An indeclinable (avyaya) that carries the sense of a case-relation, nearness, abundance, decline, absence, the passing of time, an unfit occasion, appearance, sequence in coming after, order, simultaneity, resemblance, completeness, or entirety compounds with a case-inflected word to form an avyayibhava — as 'adhi' (meaning 'concerning', the sense of the locative case) compounds with 'hari' to give 'adhihari'.

यथाऽसादृश्ये

yathā'sādṛśye

'Yatha' (as, according to), when it conveys distributive variation rather than plain resemblance, compounds with an inflected word as an avyayibhava — giving forms such as 'yathavrddham', meted out to each in turn according to his seniority.

यावदवधारणे

yāvadavadhāraṇe

'Yavat' (as much/many as), in the sense of fixing an exact extent, compounds with an inflected word — as 'yavadamatram', exactly as many vessels as there are.

सुप्प्रतिना मात्रार्थे

suppratinā mātrārthe

The case-inflected word 'prati', when used in the sense of 'just a little bit of', compounds with another inflected word as an avyayibhava — as 'shakaprati', a mere trace of a vegetable dish.

अक्षशलाकासंख्याः परिणा

akṣaśalākāsaṁkhyāḥ pariṇā

The words 'aksha' (a die), 'shalaka' (a counting-stick) and numerals compound with the indeclinable 'pari' (around, in respect of) as an avyayibhava — as in 'akshapari', bearing on the count of the dice.

विभाषा

vibhāṣā

A governing rule: from here on, wherever this section speaks of a compound, it is understood to be optional (vibhasha) — either form, compounded or uncompounded, is correct, as with 'apatrigartam' beside 'apatrigartebhyah'.

अपपरिबहिरञ्चवः पञ्चम्या

apaparibahirañcavaḥ pañcamyā

'Apa', 'pari', 'bahis' and 'ancu' optionally compound with a word in the ablative case as an avyayibhava — so 'apatlaliputram' stands beside the uncompounded 'a patalipurtrad', it rained as far as Pataliputra.

आङ्मर्यादाभिविध्योः

āṅmaryādābhividhyoḥ

'A' (up to / as far as), in the sense of a limit or of full extension, optionally compounds with an ablative — as when locusts fly 'right up to the fire', the boundary or the full reach of the fire being marked by 'a'.

लक्षणेनाभिप्रती आभिमुख्ये

lakṣaṇenābhipratī ābhimukhye

'Abhi' and 'prati', in the sense of 'facing towards', optionally compound with a word denoting a landmark used to indicate direction — as 'anuvanam', in the direction of the forest.

अनुर्यत्समया

anuryatsamayā

'Anu' (along, following the length of), when it means running alongside a landmark, optionally compounds with the word for that landmark — as 'anugangam', all along the Ganga, describing how Varanasi is strung out along the river's course.

यस्य चायामः

yasya cāyāmaḥ

'Anu' likewise optionally compounds with a word when it signals the extent or length something runs to, matching the previous rule's method — as in the traditional examples 'tishthadgu kalah' and 'vahadgu kalah', the time when cows stand still or are driven along.

तिष्ठद्गुप्रभृतीनि च

tiṣṭhadguprabhṛtīni ca

Words like 'tishthadgu' are simply listed (nipatana) as ready-made forms and given the technical status of avyayibhava directly, without deriving them step by step — as with 'parengam' and 'madhyegangam', on the far side of / in the middle of the Ganga.

पारे मध्ये षष्ठ्या वा

pāre madhye ṣaṣṭhyā vā

'Pare' (on the far side) and 'madhye' (in the middle) optionally compound with a genitive as an avyayibhava — so 'gangapaaram' stands as an alternative to the uncompounded 'gangayah param', the far bank of the Ganga.

संख्या वंश्येन

saṁkhyā vaṁśyena

A numeral optionally compounds with a word denoting a line of teachers or descent (by learning or by birth) as an avyayibhava — as 'saptagangam', a lineage counted as seven, in the collective sense of seven such 'Gangas'.

नदीभिश्च

nadībhiśca

A numeral likewise compounds with the proper name of a river as an avyayibhava — as 'pancagangam', a collective grouping of five (rivers each called) 'Ganga'.

अन्यपदार्थे च संज्ञायाम्

anyapadārthe ca saṁjñāyām

Even when the compound as a whole points to something else entirely (a proper name), a river-name still optionally compounds with an inflected word as an avyayibhava, so long as the resulting word functions purely as a name — as 'purveshukamashami', the designated name of a particular village.

तत्पुरुषः

tatpuruṣaḥ

A governing rule: every compound taught from here up to 'ktva ca' (2.2.22) receives the technical name 'tatpurusha' — as in 'pancarajam' and 'dvyahah', a group of five kings, a span of two days.

द्विगुश्च

dviguśca

The compound-class called 'dvigu' (a numeral compounded with its counted noun) is likewise given the technical name 'tatpurusha' — as with 'kashtashritah' or 'aranyatitah', which fall under this same broader category.

द्वितीयाश्रितातीतपतितगतात्यस्तप्राप्तापन्नैः

dvitīyāśritātītapatitagatātyastaprāptāpannaiḥ

A word in the accusative case compounds, as a tatpurusha, with any of these seven words: 'shrita' (having taken refuge in), 'atita' (past), 'patita' (fallen into), 'gata' (gone to), 'atyasta' (flung), 'prapta' (having reached) and 'apanna' (having come upon) — as 'krishnashritah', one who has taken refuge in Krishna.

स्वयं क्तेन

svayaṁ ktena

'Svayam' (of one's own accord) optionally compounds, as a tatpurusha, with a word ending in the past-participle suffix 'kta' — illustrated by forms such as 'khatvarudhah' and 'khatvaplutah'.

खट्वा क्षेपे

khaṭvā kṣepe

When a taunt or reproach is meant, 'khatva' (a cot) in the accusative optionally compounds with a past-participle word — used sarcastically of a worthless man who does nothing but lie on his cot.

सामि

sāmi

'Sami' (half) optionally compounds, as a tatpurusha, with a past-participle word — as 'samikrtam' (half-done), 'samipitam' (half-drunk) and 'samibhuktam' (half-eaten).

कालाः क्तेन

kālāḥ ktena

Words denoting a span of time, in the accusative, optionally compound with a past-participle word — as 'muhurtasukham', a moment's worth of comfort.

अत्यन्तसंयोगे च

atyantasaṁyoge ca

Even when the sense is one of continuous, uninterrupted connection throughout that span, a time-word in the accusative still optionally compounds with a past-participle word — as 'shankulakhandah', a piece cut clean through with a knife.

तृतीया तत्कृतार्थेन गुणवचनेन

tṛtīyā tatkṛtārthena guṇavacanena

An instrumental word compounds, as a tatpurusha, with a quality-word that names a property brought about by that very instrument — as 'shankulakhandah', a piece whose cut edge (the quality named) results specifically from the knife.

पूर्वसदृशसमोनार्थकलहनिपुणमिश्रश्लक्ष्णैः

pūrvasadṛśasamonārthakalahanipuṇamiśraślakṣṇaiḥ

An instrumental word optionally compounds with 'purva' (prior by), 'sadrsha' (similar to), 'sama' (equal to), a word meaning 'short by', 'kalaha' (quarrelling with), 'nipuna' (skilled in), 'mishra' (mixed with) and 'shlakshna' (smooth with) — as 'maasapurvah' (a month earlier) and 'matrsadrshah' (like his mother).

कर्तृकरणे कृता बहुलम्

kartṛkaraṇe kṛtā bahulam

An instrumental word denoting either the agent or the instrument compounds, with irregular frequency, with a word ending in a primary (krt) suffix — as 'haritratah', protected by Hari, where the agent is expressed instrumentally.

कृत्यैरधिकार्थवचने

kṛtyairadhikārthavacane

When the sense is one of something added in excess or supplement, an instrumental word (whether agent or instrument) optionally compounds with a word ending in a 'krtya' (obligatory-gerundive) suffix — as 'dadhyodanah', rice mixed in with curd.

अन्नेन व्यञ्जनम्

annena vyañjanam

A word for a side-dish or relish, in the instrumental, optionally compounds with a word for the staple grain it is eaten with — as 'gudadhanah', parched grain mixed with jaggery.

भक्ष्येण मिश्रीकरणम्

bhakṣyeṇa miśrīkaraṇam

An instrumental word in the sense of 'mixed together with' likewise optionally compounds with a word for a foodstuff — continuing the pattern of the previous rule, as with 'gudadhanah' and 'gudaprthukah'.

चतुर्थी तदर्थार्थबलिहितसुखरक्षितैः

caturthī tadarthārthabalihitasukharakṣitaiḥ

A dative word compounds, as a tatpurusha, with 'tadartha' (made for that purpose), 'artha' (for the sake of), 'bali' (an offering to), 'hita' (beneficial to), 'sukha' (pleasant to) and 'rakshita' (protected for) — as 'yupadaruh', timber meant for the sacrificial post.

पञ्चमी भयेन

pañcamī bhayena

An ablative word compounds with 'bhaya' (fear) — as 'corabhayam', fear arising from a thief.

अपेतापोढमुक्तपतितापत्रस्तैरल्पशः

apetāpoḍhamuktapatitāpatrastairalpaśaḥ

'Apeta' (departed from), 'apodha' (carried off from), 'mukta' (released from), 'patita' (fallen from) and 'apatrasta' (fled from) optionally compound with an ablative word, in a limited (alpasah) sense — as 'stokanmuktah', barely released, sketched out fully by the sutra that follows.

स्तोकान्तिकदूरार्थकृच्छ्राणि क्तेन

stokāntikadūrārthakṛcchrāṇi ktena

'Stoka' (a little), 'antika' (near), a word meaning 'far' and 'krcchra' (with difficulty), in the ablative, compound with a past-participle word — as 'stokanmuktah', released by just a whisker.

सप्तमी शौण्डैः

saptamī śauṇḍaiḥ

A locative word compounds with 'shaunda' (skilled/addicted) and similar words — as 'akshashaundah', a master of dice.

सिद्धशुष्कपक्वबन्धैश्च

siddhaśuṣkapakvabandhaiśca

A locative word likewise compounds with 'siddha' (accomplished/cooked), 'shushka' (dried), 'pakva' (ripened/cooked) and 'bandha' (bound) — as in 'tirthadhvankshah', 'the crow of the pilgrimage-spot', an idiom for a sham pilgrim.

ध्वाङ्क्षेण क्षेपे

dhvāṅkṣeṇa kṣepe

When a slur is intended, a locative word compounds with 'dhvanksha' (crow) — the basis of the scornful coinage 'tirthadhvankshah' seen in the previous rule.

कृत्यैर्ऋणे

kṛtyairṛṇe

In the sense of a debt, a locative word compounds with a word ending in a 'krtya' (gerundive) suffix — as 'masadeyam rnam', a debt payable within a month.

संज्ञायाम्

saṁjñāyām

When the whole compound functions purely as a fixed name, a locative word compounds obligatorily (not merely optionally) with an inflected word — as 'purvahnakrtam', that done in the forenoon, a set expression.

क्तेनाहोरात्रावयवाः

ktenāhorātrāvayavāḥ

Words denoting a portion of the day or of the night compound with a past-participle word — illustrated by 'tatrabhuktam', 'tatrapitam' and 'tatrakrtam' (eaten, drunk, done at that particular time).

तत्र क्तेन

tatra ktena

'Tatra' (there, at that point) likewise compounds with a past-participle word — continuing the same set of examples, 'tatrabhuktam' and so on.

क्षेपे

kṣepe

When contempt is meant, a locative word compounds with a past-participle word — as 'patresamitah', 'scraped together into a bowl', said dismissively.

पात्रेसमितादयश्च

pātresamitādayaśca

'Patresamita' and a set of similar compounds are simply listed (nipatana) as ready-made forms — including 'snatanubhuktah', 'ekabhiksha' and 'sarvamanushyah'.

पूर्वकालैकसर्वजरत्पुराणनवकेवलाः समानाधिकरणेन

pūrvakālaikasarvajaratpurāṇanavakevalāḥ samānādhikaraṇena

A word meaning 'prior in time', or 'eka' (one/same), 'sarva' (all), 'jarat' (old), 'purana' (ancient), 'nava' (new) and 'kevala' (mere) compound with a co-referential word — as 'snatanubhuktah', one who bathed and then ate, in that order.

दिक्संख्ये संज्ञायाम्

diksaṁkhye saṁjñāyām

In a name, a word for a direction or a numeral compounds with a co-referential word — as 'purveshukamashami', the fixed name of a particular village.

तद्धितार्थोत्तरपदसमाहारे च

taddhitārthottarapadasamāhāre ca

A direction- or number-word also compounds with a co-referential word when a secondary (taddhita) derivative sense is meant, when a further word follows, or when a collective grouping is intended — as 'paurvashalah' and 'pancagavadhanah'.

संख्यापूर्वो द्विगुः

saṁkhyāpūrvo dviguḥ

A compound formed with a numeral as its first member (as taught in the previous rule) receives the technical name 'dvigu' — as 'pancagavam', a collective of five cows.

कुत्सितानि कुत्सनैः

kutsitāni kutsanaiḥ

A word for something disparaged compounds with a word of disparagement — as 'papanapitah', a wretched barber.

पापाणके कुत्सितैः

pāpāṇake kutsitaiḥ

'Papa' and 'anaka', words of contempt, compound with a disparaged word — continuing the previous rule's examples, 'papanapitah' and 'anakanapitah'.

उपमानानि सामान्यवचनैः

upamānāni sāmānyavacanaiḥ

A word naming the standard of comparison compounds with a word naming the shared quality — as 'ghanashyamah', dark as a raincloud.

उपमितं व्याघ्रादिभिः सामान्याप्रयोगे

upamitaṁ vyāghrādibhiḥ sāmānyāprayoge

When the shared-quality word is left unexpressed, the thing compared compounds directly with a word like 'vyaghra' (tiger) as the standard of comparison — as 'purushavyaghrah', a man who is a very tiger (in valour, though 'valour' itself goes unstated).

विशेषणं विशेष्येण बहुलम्

viśeṣaṇaṁ viśeṣyeṇa bahulam

A qualifying (adjectival) word compounds, with irregular frequency, with the co-referential word it qualifies — as 'nilotpalam', a blue lotus.

पूर्वापरप्रथमचरमजघन्यसमानमध्यमध्यमवीराश्च

pūrvāparaprathamacaramajaghanyasamānamadhyamadhyamavīrāśca

'Purva' (former), 'apara' (latter), 'prathama' (first), 'carama' (last), 'jaghanya' (lowest), 'samana' (same), 'madhya' (middle), 'madhyama' (mid-most) and 'vira' (foremost/hero) compound with a co-referential word — illustrated by forms such as 'shrenikrtah' and 'ekakrtah'.

श्रेण्यादयः कृतादिभिः

śreṇyādayaḥ kṛtādibhiḥ

'Shreni' (a row) and similar listed words compound with a co-referential word from a list beginning with 'krta' (done) — as 'krtakrtam', part done and part left undone.

क्तेन नञ्विशिष्टेनानञ्

ktena nañviśiṣṭenānañ

A past-participle word that is qualified by something other than a bare negative particle compounds with a co-referential, non-negated past-participle word — as 'satpurushah', a good (an existing, worthy) man.

सन्महत्परमोत्तमोत्कृष्टाः पूज्यमानैः

sanmahatparamottamotkṛṣṭāḥ pūjyamānaiḥ

'Sat', 'mahat', 'parama', 'uttama' and 'utkrshta' — words of honour — compound with a word denoting something venerated — continuing the previous examples, 'satpurushah', 'mahapurushah' and 'paramapurushah'.

वृन्दारकनागकुञ्जरैः पूज्यमानम्

vṛndārakanāgakuñjaraiḥ pūjyamānam

A word for something revered compounds with 'vrndaraka', 'naga' and 'kunjara' (all meaning something exalted, like an elephant) — as 'govrndarakah', 'gonagah' and 'gokunjarah', honorific ways of saying 'the noble cow'.

कतरकतमौ जातिपरिप्रश्ने

katarakatamau jātiparipraśne

'Katara' (which of the two) and 'katama' (which of the many), used to ask which sub-kind is meant, compound with an inflected word — as 'katarakathah', which of the two Katha reciters.

किं क्षेपे

kiṁ kṣepe

In a rhetorical, scornful sense, 'kim' (what kind of) compounds with an inflected word — as 'kimsakha', 'what sort of friend', said of one who betrays, and 'kimraja', 'what sort of king', said of one who fails to protect his people.

पोटायुवतिस्तोककतिपयगृष्टिधेनुवशावेहद्बष्कयणीप्रवक्तृश्रोत्रियाध्यापकधूर्तैर्जातिः

poṭāyuvatistokakatipayagṛṣṭidhenuvaśāvehadbaṣkayaṇīpravaktṛśrotriyādhyāpakadhūrtairjātiḥ

A word denoting the general class of a creature compounds with 'pota' (a young, sexless creature), 'yuvati' (a young female), 'stoka', 'katipaya' (a small/certain number), and named terms for a cow at various stages, together with 'pravaktr', 'shrotriya', 'adhyapaka' and 'dhurta' — as 'ibhapota', a young elephant.

प्रशंसावचनैश्च

praśaṁsāvacanaiśca

A class-name word also compounds with a word of praise — as 'brahmanatejasvi' or 'brahmanashurah', a Brahmin renowned for brilliance or valour.

युवा खलतिपलितवलिनजरतीभिः

yuvā khalatipalitavalinajaratībhiḥ

'Yuvan' (young) compounds with co-referential 'khalati' (bald), 'palita' (grey-haired), 'valina' (wrinkled) and 'jarati' (aged-looking) — as 'yuvakhalatih', a man young yet already bald.

कृत्यतुल्याख्या अजात्या

kṛtyatulyākhyā ajātyā

A word ending in a 'krtya' (gerundive) suffix, and words meaning 'similar', compound with a co-referential word that is not a class-name — as 'bhojyoshnam', a hot dish that is fit to be eaten.

वर्णो वर्णेन

varṇo varṇena

A colour-word compounds with another colour-word — as 'krshnasarangah', a black deer.

कुमारः श्रमणादिभिः

kumāraḥ śramaṇādibhiḥ

'Kumara' (young) compounds with 'shramana' and a listed set of similar words (an ascetic woman, and other such states, in the feminine; a teacher, a scholar and the like, in the masculine) — as 'kumarashramana', a young female ascetic.

चतुष्पादो गर्भिण्या

catuṣpādo garbhiṇyā

A word for a four-legged animal compounds with 'garbhini' (pregnant) — as 'gogarbhini', a pregnant cow.

मयूरव्यंसकादयश्च

mayūravyaṁsakādayaśca

'Mayuravyansaka' and a further list of compounds are simply listed (nipatana) as ready-made tatpurushas, outside the regular derivational process — as 'mayuravyansakah' and 'chatravyansakah'.

पूर्वापराधरोत्तरमेकदेशिनैकाधिकरणे

pūrvāparādharottaramekadeśinaikādhikaraṇe

'Purva' (front), 'apara' (back), 'adhara' (lower) and 'uttara' (upper) compound, as a tatpurusha, with a word for the whole of which they name a part sharing the same single base — as 'purvakayah', the fore part of the body.

अर्धं नपुंसकम्

ardhaṁ napuṁsakam

'Ardha' (half), a neuter word, compounds with a singular word for the whole it is half of — as 'ardhapippali', half a long-pepper.

द्वितीयतृतीयचतुर्थतुर्याण्यन्यतरस्याम्

dvitīyatṛtīyacaturthaturyāṇyanyatarasyām

'Dvitiya' (second), 'trtiya' (third), 'caturtha' (fourth) and 'turya' (fourth) optionally compound with a singular word for the whole they name a fractional share of — as 'dvitiyabhiksha' beside the alternative, uncompounded-order 'bhikshadvitiyam'.

प्राप्तापन्ने च द्वितीयया

prāptāpanne ca dvitīyayā

'Prapta' (having attained) and 'apanna' (having come upon) compound with a word in the accusative — as 'praptajivikah', one who has come by a livelihood.

कालाः परिमाणिना

kālāḥ parimāṇinā

Words for a span of time, used to measure something, compound with a word for a substance that has a definite measure — as 'masajatah', a month old.

नञ्

nañ

The negative particle 'na' compounds with a mutually connected inflected word — as 'na brahmanah' giving 'abrahmanah', one other than a Brahmin.

ईषदकृता

īṣadakṛtā

'Ishat' (a little, somewhat) compounds with a word that is not itself a krt-derivative — as 'ishatkadarah', slightly tawny.

षष्ठी

ṣaṣṭhī

A word in the genitive case compounds with another inflected word — as 'rajapurushah', the king's man; this is the general rule for genitive tatpurusha compounds.

याजकादिभिश्च

yājakādibhiśca

A genitive word also compounds with 'yajaka' (officiating priest) and a list of similar agent-words — as 'brahmanayajakah', one who officiates for a Brahmin.

न निर्धारणे

na nirdhāraṇe

A genitive that singles one member out from a group (nirdharana) does NOT compound — as in 'manushyanam kshatriyah shuratamah', the Kshatriya is bravest among men, which stays uncompounded.

पूरणगुणसुहितार्थसदव्ययतव्यसमानाधिकरणेन

pūraṇaguṇasuhitārthasadavyayatavyasamānādhikaraṇena

A genitive does NOT compound when it stands with an ordinal, a plain quality-word, a word of satiation, a present-participle ('sat'), an indeclinable, a word ending in 'tavya', or a co-referential word — as 'chatranam pancamah', fifth among the students, left uncompounded.

क्तेन च पूजायाम्

ktena ca pūjāyām

A genitive likewise does NOT compound with a past-participle used in the honorific sense — as 'rajnam matah', deemed worthy by kings, stays uncompounded.

अधिकरणवाचिना च

adhikaraṇavācinā ca

A genitive also does NOT compound with a past-participle used to denote a location — as 'idam esham yatam', this is their path of going, kept apart.

कर्मणि च

karmaṇi ca

A genitive prescribed under the object-marking rule 2.3.66 likewise does NOT compound with a mutually connected word — as in 'rocate me modakasya bhojanam balena', I like the boy's eating of sweets, kept uncompounded.

तृजकाभ्यां कर्तरि

tṛjakābhyāṁ kartari

A genitive naming an agent does NOT compound with a word ending in the agent suffix 'trc' or 'aka' (nvul) — as 'puram bhetta', destroyer of cities, kept apart.

कर्तरि च

kartari ca

A genitive naming an agent likewise does NOT compound with an agent-noun in 'trc' or 'aka' when it names an activity — as 'tava shayika' and 'mama jagarika', kept uncompounded.

नित्यं क्रीडाजीविकयोः

nityaṁ krīḍājīvikayoḥ

As an exception to the last two rules, a genitive compounds OBLIGATORILY with an 'aka'-word when the sense is that of play or of a livelihood — as 'dantalekhakah', an ivory-carver by trade.

कुगतिप्रादयः

kugatiprādayaḥ

'Ku' (a particle of disparagement), words classed as 'gati', and the pre-verbs beginning with 'pra' obligatorily compound with a mutually connected word — as 'kupurushah', a base man.

उपपदमतिङ्

upapadamatiṅ

A word syntactically dependent on a verb ('upapada') obligatorily compounds with it, provided the resulting compound's final member is not a finite verb-form but a krt-derivative — as 'kumbhakarah', a potter, from 'kumbham karoti', he makes pots.

अमैवाव्ययेन

amaivāvyayena

When an upapada compound is formed with an indeclinable, it is formed only with an indeclinable ending in the accusative-like '-am' — as in 'svadunkaram bhunkte', he eats having made it sweet.

तृतीयाप्रभृतीन्यन्यतरस्याम्

tṛtīyāprabhṛtīnyanyatarasyām

All the upapadas taught from 'upadamshastrtiyayam' onward optionally compound (with the '-am'-ending indeclinable) — as 'mulakopadansham bhunkte' beside the uncompounded 'mulakena upadansham'.

क्त्वा च

ktvā ca

The upapada also optionally compounds with a word ending in the gerund suffix 'ktva' — as with the alternate forms of 'uccaih krtya', having raised (one's voice).

शेषो बहुव्रीहिः

śeṣo bahuvrīhiḥ

Whatever compound is neither an avyayibhava nor a tatpurusha receives the technical name 'bahuvrihi' — a governing rule that extends up to 'tena saheti tulyayoge' (2.2.28).

अनेकमन्यपदार्थे

anekamanyapadārthe

Two or more mutually connected inflected words, when together they point to some third thing outside themselves, compound as a bahuvrihi — as 'pitambarah', literally 'yellow-robed', used not of the robe but of Krishna, who wears it.

संख्ययाव्ययासन्नादूराधिकसंख्याः संख्येये

saṁkhyayāvyayāsannādūrādhikasaṁkhyāḥ saṁkhyeye

An indeclinable, 'asanna' (nearly), 'adura' (not far short of) and a further numeral compound, as a bahuvrihi, with a numeral denoting a thing to be counted — as 'upadashah', about ten.

दिङ्नामान्यन्तराले

diṅnāmānyantarāle

Direction-names compound with each other, as a bahuvrihi, to denote the intermediate point between them — as 'dakshinapurva', the south-east, the point between south and east.

तत्र तेनेदमिति सरूपे

tatra tenedamiti sarūpe

Two identical words, doubled, one in the locative and one in the instrumental sense of 'this happening to that', compound as a bahuvrihi — as 'keshakeshi', a hair-pulling brawl (each grabbing the other's hair).

तेन सहेति तुल्ययोगे

tena saheti tulyayoge

'Saha' (together with), in the sense of equal companionship, compounds with an instrumental word as a bahuvrihi — as 'saputrah', accompanied by his son.

चार्थे द्वन्द्वः

cārthe dvandvaḥ

Two or more mutually connected inflected words, joined merely in the sense of 'and', compound with each other; this type is called 'dvandva' — as when 'ishvaram gurum ca' shows two independent things simply listed together.

उपसर्जनं पूर्वम्

upasarjanaṁ pūrvam

In a compound, the member marked as subordinate ('upasarjana') is placed first — as 'adhi', the subordinate member in 'adhi harau', comes first to give 'adhihari'.

राजदन्तादिषु परम्

rājadantādiṣu param

As an exception to the previous rule, in the words listed in the 'rajadanta' group, the subordinate member is placed AFTER — as 'rajadantah' (not 'dantarajah'), the foremost tooth.

द्वन्द्वे घि

dvandve ghi

In a dvandva compound, a member classed 'ghi' (ending in short i or u) is placed first — as 'hariharau', Hari and Hara, taken together.

अजाद्यदन्तम्

ajādyadantam

In a dvandva compound, a member that begins with a vowel and ends in short 'a' is placed first — as 'ishakrshnau', Isha and Krishna.

अल्पाच्तरम्

alpāctaram

In a dvandva compound, the member with fewer vowels is placed first — as 'shivakeshavau', since 'shiva' has two vowels against 'keshava's three.

सप्तमीविशेषणे बहुव्रीहौ

saptamīviśeṣaṇe bahuvrīhau

In a bahuvrihi compound, a locative word, and a qualifying (adjectival) word, are placed first — overriding the general 'subordinate-first' rule — as 'praptodakagramah', a village that water has reached.

निष्ठा

niṣṭhā

In a bahuvrihi compound, a word ending in a past-participle suffix ('nishtha') is placed first — as 'yuktayogah', one whose practice is accomplished, a true yogi.

वाऽऽहिताग्न्यादिषु

vā''hitāgnyādiṣu

In the words of the 'ahitagni' group, a past-participle word is optionally placed first, and may in the other case be placed last — as with 'putrajatah' (participle last) beside 'jatadantah' (participle first).

कडाराः कर्मधारये

kaḍārāḥ karmadhāraye

'Kadara' and similar listed words are optionally placed first in a karmadharaya compound — as 'kadarajaiminih' beside the alternative order 'jaiminikadarah'.

अनभिहिते

anabhihite

A governing rule: everything that follows applies only when the karaka-sense in question has not already been expressed by some other affix (a krt, taddhita or compound) — that is, only to a case-relation still left 'unexpressed' (anabhihita).

कर्मणि द्वितीया

karmaṇi dvitīyā

An unexpressed object (karman) takes the accusative case — as in 'katam karoti', he makes a mat, where 'kata' (the mat), being the object, takes the accusative ending.

तृतीया च होश्छन्दसि

tṛtīyā ca hośchandasi

In Vedic usage, the object of the verb 'hu' (to offer in the fire) may optionally take the instrumental case as well as the accusative — as 'yavagva agnihotram juhoti' beside 'yavagum agnihotram juhoti'.

अन्तरान्तरेण युक्ते

antarāntareṇa yukte

A word joined with 'antara' or 'antarena' (both meaning 'between' or 'without') takes the accusative — as 'tvam mam ca antara harih asti', Hari stands between you and me.

कालाध्वनोरत्यन्तसंयोगे

kālādhvanoratyantasaṁyoge

A word for a span of time or of distance takes the accusative when continuous, unbroken extension throughout is meant — as 'masam adhitah anuvakah', the section studied for a whole month running.

अपवर्गे तृतीया

apavarge tṛtīyā

When completion of the action, with its result achieved, is meant (apavarga), a time- or distance-word instead takes the instrumental — as 'masena anuvakah adhitah', the section was mastered within a month.

सप्तमीपञ्चम्यौ कारकमध्ये

saptamīpañcamyau kārakamadhye

A time- or distance-word standing between two named karakas takes the locative or the ablative — as 'devadattah bhuktva dvyahe bhokta', Devadatta, having eaten, will eat again after (in) two days.

कर्मप्रवचनीययुक्ते द्वितीया

karmapravacanīyayukte dvitīyā

A word governed by a 'karmapravacaniya' (an indeclinable used prepositionally) takes the accusative — as 'lakshmanah ramam anugacchati', Lakshmana follows behind Rama.

यस्मादधिकं यस्य चेश्वरवचनं तत्र सप्तमी

yasmādadhikaṁ yasya ceśvaravacanaṁ tatra saptamī

With a governing 'karmapravacaniya', the word denoting that in excess of which, or over which mastery is asserted, takes the locative — as 'upakharyam dronah', a drona-measure that exceeds a khari.

पञ्चम्यपाङ्परिभिः

pañcamyapāṅparibhiḥ

With the karmapravacaniyas 'apa', 'a' and 'pari', a word takes the ablative — as 'apa trigartebhyah vrshtah devah', it rained everywhere except over Trigarta.

प्रतिनिधिप्रतिदाने च यस्मात्

pratinidhipratidāne ca yasmāt

With a governing karmapravacaniya, the word denoting that for which a substitute stands, or that in exchange for which something is given, takes the ablative — as 'tilebhyah prati mashan asmai yacchati', he gives black gram in exchange for sesame.

गत्यर्थकर्मणि द्वितीयाचतुर्थ्यौ चेष्टायामनध्वनि

gatyarthakarmaṇi dvitīyācaturthyau ceṣṭāyāmanadhvani

The object of a verb of motion that is a deliberate act (not the path itself) takes either the accusative or the dative — as 'gramam vrajati' beside 'gramaya vrajati', he goes to the village.

चतुर्थी सम्प्रदाने

caturthī sampradāne

The recipient (sampradana) of a gift takes the dative — as 'viprayah gam dadati', he gives a cow to the Brahmin.

क्रियार्थोपपदस्य च कर्मणि स्थानिनः

kriyārthopapadasya ca karmaṇi sthāninaḥ

The unexpressed object of an understood verb that expresses purpose (the actual verb of motion 'to go' standing in its place) takes the dative — as 'edhebhyah vrajati', he goes for (to fetch) firewood.

तुमर्थाच्च भाववचनात्

tumarthācca bhāvavacanāt

An abstract (verbal-noun) word that carries the sense of purpose, equivalent to the infinitive 'tumun', likewise takes the dative — as 'pakaya vrajati', he goes in order to cook.

नमःस्वस्तिस्वाहास्वधाऽलंवषड्योगाच्च

namaḥsvastisvāhāsvadhā'laṁvaṣaḍyogācca

A word joined with 'namah' (salutation), 'svasti' (well-being), 'svaha' and 'svadha' (ritual exclamations), 'alam' (sufficient/capable of) or 'vashat' (a sacrificial call) takes the dative — as 'haraye namah', salutation to Hari.

मन्यकर्मण्यनादरे विभाषाऽप्राणिषु

manyakarmaṇyanādare vibhāṣā'prāṇiṣu

When contempt is meant, the non-living object of the verb 'man' (to consider) optionally takes the dative — as 'na tva trnam manye' beside 'na tva trnaya manye', I do not think you worth a blade of grass.

कर्तृकरणयोस्तृतीया

kartṛkaraṇayostṛtīyā

An unexpressed agent (karta) or instrument (karana) takes the instrumental — as 'ramena banena hatah balih', Bali, slain by Rama with an arrow, both agent and instrument here taking the instrumental in this passive construction.

सहयुक्तेऽप्रधाने

sahayukte'pradhāne

A subordinate word joined with 'saha' (together with) takes the instrumental — as 'putrena saha agatah pita', the father came together with his son, the son being the subordinate element.

येनाङ्गविकारः

yenāṅgavikāraḥ

The particular body-part whose defect characterises the whole person takes the instrumental — as 'akshna kanah', blind in the eye, and 'padena khanjah', lame in the leg.

इत्थम्भूतलक्षणे

itthambhūtalakṣaṇe

A distinguishing mark that characterises someone's present state or condition takes the instrumental — as 'api bhavan kamandaluna chatram adrakshit', did you see the student carrying a water-pot.

संज्ञोऽन्यतरस्यां कर्मणि

saṁjño'nyatarasyāṁ karmaṇi

The object of 'sam' + 'jna' (to recognise) optionally takes the instrumental in place of the accusative — as 'matra sanjanite balah' beside 'mataram sanjanite', the child recognises his mother.

हेतौ

hetau

A word expressing the reason or cause for something takes the instrumental — as 'vidyaya', by reason of learning, 'satsangena', by reason of good company, 'dhanena', by reason of wealth.

अकर्तर्यृणे पञ्चमी

akartaryṛṇe pañcamī

A non-agent word denoting a debt takes the ablative — as 'shatat baddhah', bound (into service) on account of a debt of a hundred.

विभाषा गुणेऽस्त्रियाम्

vibhāṣā guṇe'striyām

A non-feminine word naming a quality as the reason optionally takes the ablative (rather than the instrumental of 2.3.23) — as 'jadyat baddhah' beside 'jadyena baddhah', bound by his own foolishness.

षष्ठी हेतुप्रयोगे

ṣaṣṭhī hetuprayoge

When the word 'hetu' (cause) itself is directly used, the reason it names takes the genitive — as 'annasya hetoh dhanikule vasati', he lives in a rich household for the sake of food.

सर्वनाम्नस्तृतीया च

sarvanāmnastṛtīyā ca

With the word 'hetu' expressed, a pronoun naming the reason may take either the instrumental or the genitive — as 'kasya hetoh vasati' beside 'kena hetuna vasati', for what reason does he live [there].

अपादाने पञ्चमी

apādāne pañcamī

The karaka called apadana (the fixed point from which something moves away) takes the ablative — as 'gramat ayati', he comes from the village, 'grama' here being the apadana.

अन्यारादितरर्तेदिक्शब्दाञ्चूत्तरपदाजाहियुक्ते

anyārāditarartedikśabdāñcūttarapadājāhiyukte

A word joined with 'anya' (other than), 'arat' (far/near), 'itara' (different), 'rte' (without), a direction-word, a compound ending in '-ancu', 'ac' or 'ahi' takes the ablative — as 'devadattat anyah', other than Devadatta, and 'yajnadattat rte', without Yajnadatta.

षष्ठ्यतसर्थप्रत्ययेन

ṣaṣṭhyatasarthapratyayena

A word carrying the suffix 'atasuc' or an equivalent suffix takes the genitive — as 'dakshinato gramasya', to the south of the village, and 'upari gramasya', above the village.

एनपा द्वितीया

enapā dvitīyā

A word joined with a form carrying the 'enap' suffix takes the accusative — as 'dakshinena gramam', to the south of the village.

पृथग्विनानानाभिस्तृतीयान्यतरस्याम्

pṛthagvinānānābhistṛtīyānyatarasyām

A word joined with 'prthak' (separately), 'vina' (without) or 'nana' (variously) optionally takes either the instrumental or the ablative — as 'prthak gramena' beside 'prthak gramat', apart from the village.

करणे च स्तोकाल्पकृच्छ्रकतिपयस्यासत्त्ववचनस्य

karaṇe ca stokālpakṛcchrakatipayasyāsattvavacanasya

In the instrumental (karana) sense, the abstract words 'stoka' (a bit), 'alpa' (little), 'krcchra' (difficulty) and 'katipaya' (a few) may take either the genitive or the ablative — as 'stokena muktah' beside 'stokat muktah', freed by the narrowest margin.

दूरान्तिकार्थैः षष्ठ्यन्यतरस्याम्

dūrāntikārthaiḥ ṣaṣṭhyanyatarasyām

A word meaning 'far' or 'near' optionally takes either the genitive or the ablative — as 'gramat duram' beside 'gramasya duram', far from the village.

दूरान्तिकार्थेभ्यो द्वितीया च

dūrāntikārthebhyo dvitīyā ca

'Far' and 'near' words may further take the accusative (in addition to the genitive and ablative of the previous rule) — as the three parallel forms 'duram gramasya', 'durena gramasya' and 'durad gramasya', all meaning 'far from the village'.

सप्तम्यधिकरणे च

saptamyadhikaraṇe ca

The karaka called 'adhikarana' (locus) takes the locative, and 'far'/'near' words may take it too — as 'kate aste', he sits on the mat, 'kata' being the locus.

यस्य च भावेन भावलक्षणम्

yasya ca bhāvena bhāvalakṣaṇam

When one ongoing action marks the time of another (the 'locative absolute' construction), the agent of the first action takes the locative — as 'goshu duhyamanasu gatah', he left while the cows were being milked.

षष्ठी चानादरे

ṣaṣṭhī cānādare

But when disregard is meant, the same 'locative absolute' agent optionally takes the genitive instead — as 'rudatah pravrajit' beside 'rudati pravrajit', he became a wandering ascetic paying no heed to (him/her) weeping.

स्वामीश्वराधिपतिदायादसाक्षिप्रतिभूप्रसूतैश्च

svāmīśvarādhipatidāyādasākṣipratibhūprasūtaiśca

A word joined with 'svamin' (owner), 'ishvara' (lord), 'adhipati' (chief), 'dayada' (heir), 'sakshin' (witness), 'pratibhu' (surety) or 'prasuta' (offspring/agent) optionally takes either the genitive or the locative — as 'gavam svami' beside 'goshu svami', the owner of the cows.

आयुक्तकुशलाभ्यां चासेवायाम्

āyuktakuśalābhyāṁ cāsevāyām

'Ayukta' (appointed to) and 'kushala' (skilled at), when personal devotion to the task is not specifically meant, optionally take either the genitive or the locative — as 'ayuktah katakaranasya' beside 'ayuktah katakarane', appointed to mat-weaving.

यतश्च निर्धारणम्

yataśca nirdhāraṇam

The group out of which one member is singled out (nirdharana) optionally takes either the genitive or the locative — as 'manushyanam kshatriyah shuratamah' beside 'manushyeshu kshatriyah shuratamah', the Kshatriya is bravest among men.

पञ्चमी विभक्ते

pañcamī vibhakte

When the group of nirdharana is marked by a clear division set against it, it takes the ablative — as 'mathurah patliputrakebhyah sukumaratarah', the people of Mathura are more delicate than those of Pataliputra.

साधुनिपुणाभ्यामर्चायां सप्तम्यप्रतेः

sādhunipuṇābhyāmarcāyāṁ saptamyaprateḥ

'Sadhu' (devoted/good) and 'nipuna' (skilled), in the sense of reverence, take the locative provided the word 'prati' is not used — as 'matari sadhuh', devoted to (one's) mother.

प्रसितोत्सुकाभ्यां तृतीया च

prasitotsukābhyāṁ tṛtīyā ca

'Prasita' (engrossed in) and 'utsuka' (eager for) optionally take either the instrumental or the locative — as 'keshaih prasitah' beside 'keshesu prasitah', engrossed in (dressing) his hair.

नक्षत्रे च लुपि

nakṣatre ca lupi

A word for a lunar asterism, where the expected taddhita suffix has been elided (lupta), optionally takes either the instrumental or the locative — as 'pushyena payasam ashniyat' beside 'pushye payasam ashniyat', let him eat rice-pudding under the Pushya asterism.

प्रातिपदिकार्थलिङ्गपरिमाणवचनमात्रे प्रथमा

prātipadikārthaliṅgaparimāṇavacanamātre prathamā

When only the bare sense of the stem-word — its meaning, its gender, its measure or its number — is to be shown, with no other karaka relation intended, the word takes the nominative — as 'vrkshah' (gender alone), 'dronah' (a measure alone) or 'ekah, dvau' (number alone).

सम्बोधने च

sambodhane ca

The vocative sense too takes the nominative — as 'he rama', O Rama, where 'rama' in address takes the nominative ending.

सामन्त्रितम्

sāmantritam

A nominative form used in address receives the technical name 'amantrita' (vocative) — as 'agne', O Agni.

एकवचनं सम्बुद्धिः

ekavacanaṁ sambuddhiḥ

Within the vocative, the singular specifically receives the further technical name 'sambuddhi' — as 'agne', 'vayo' and 'devadatta'.

षष्ठी शेषे

ṣaṣṭhī śeṣe

For any residual relation not already covered by a named karaka — such as the general possessive or genealogical relation — the genitive is used, as a catch-all case — as 'rajnah purushah', the king's man, expressing the master-servant relation.

ज्ञोऽविदर्थस्य करणे

jño'vidarthasya karaṇe

The instrument of the verb 'jna' (to know), used in the sense of 'not knowing' (i.e. coming to know), takes the genitive — as 'sarpishah janite', he comes to know by means of the ghee.

अधीगर्थदयेशां कर्मणि

adhīgarthadayeśāṁ karmaṇi

The object of 'adhi + i' (to recollect), 'day' (to give/protect) and 'ish' (to rule/possess), when the residual (catch-all) relation is meant, takes the genitive — as 'matuh adhyeti', he recalls (thinks of) his mother.

कृञः प्रतियत्ने

kṛñaḥ pratiyatne

When 'kr' (to make/do) means 'to try to improve the quality of something', its object, taken as the residual relation, takes the genitive — as 'edhodakasya upaskurute', he works to improve his firewood and water.

रुजार्थानां भाववचनानामज्वरेः

rujārthānāṁ bhāvavacanānāmajvareḥ

The object of an abstract (action-noun) word denoting sickness — apart from those derived from 'jvar' (to have a fever) — likewise takes the genitive as the residual relation — as 'caurasya rujati rogah', illness afflicts the thief.

आशिषि नाथः

āśiṣi nāthaḥ

The object of 'nath' (to seek/desire), when a blessing is invoked, likewise takes the genitive — as 'sarpishah nathate', he longs for ghee.

जासिनिप्रहणनाटक्राथपिषां हिंसायाम्

jāsiniprahaṇanāṭakrāthapiṣāṁ hiṁsāyām

The object of the verbs 'jasi', 'ni-pra + han', 'nat', 'krath' and 'pish' — all in the sense of injuring or killing — likewise takes the genitive — as 'caurasya ujjasayati', he does away with the thief.

व्यवहृपणोः समर्थयोः

vyavahṛpaṇoḥ samarthayoḥ

The object of 'vi-ava + hr' and 'pan' (both meaning 'to trade in') likewise takes the genitive — as 'shatasya vyavaharati', he deals in a hundred (coins).

दिवस्तदर्थस्य

divastadarthasya

The object of 'div' (to gamble/trade), used in the same sense as 'vyavahr' and 'pan', likewise takes the genitive — as 'shatasya divyati', he stakes/trades in a hundred.

विभाषोपसर्गे

vibhāṣopasarge

When 'div' carries a preverb, its object optionally takes the genitive — as 'shatasya pratidivyati' beside 'shatam pratidivyati', he gambles for a hundred in return.

द्वितीया ब्राह्मणे

dvitīyā brāhmaṇe

In the Brahmana portions of the Veda, the object of a preverb-less 'div' takes the accusative instead — as 'tad ahah sabhayam divyeyuh', they would gamble in the assembly hall that day.

प्रेष्यब्रुवोर्हविषो देवतासम्प्रदाने

preṣyabruvorhaviṣo devatāsampradāne

When the deity is the recipient (sampradana), the object naming the oblation, with 'pra + ish' (to command) or 'bru' (to declare), takes the genitive — as 'agnaye chagasya havishah vapayah preshya', for Agni, [with] the offering-portion of the goat's [caul-fat], be it commanded.

चतुर्थ्यर्थे बहुलं छन्दसि

caturthyarthe bahulaṁ chandasi

In Vedic usage, the genitive is frequently (though not invariably) used where the dative would be expected — as in 'darvaghatah te vanaspatinam', where the genitive stands in for a dative sense.

यजेश्च करणे

yajeśca karaṇe

In Vedic usage, the instrument of 'yaj' (to sacrifice) takes the genitive — as 'ghrtasya yajate' beside 'ghrtena yajate', he sacrifices with ghee.

कृत्वोऽर्थप्रयोगे कालेऽधिकरणे

kṛtvo'rthaprayoge kāle'dhikaraṇe

When a word carrying the suffix 'krtvasuc' (denoting 'so many times') or its equivalent is used, the time-word that is the locus (adhikarana) takes the genitive — as 'pancakrtvah ahnah bhunkte', he eats five times a day.

कर्तृकर्मणोः कृति

kartṛkarmaṇoḥ kṛti

With a krt-suffixed word, both the agent and the object take the genitive — as 'bhavatah shayika' (your sleeping, agent) and 'puram bhetta' (destroyer of cities, object).

उभयप्राप्तौ कर्मणि

ubhayaprāptau karmaṇi

When both agent and object are candidates for the genitive with the same krt-word, only the object takes it — as 'gavam dohah agopalakena', the milking of the cows by a non-cowherd, where the genitive falls on 'cows' (the object), not the milker.

क्तस्य च वर्तमाने

ktasya ca vartamāne

A past-participle word used with a present-tense sense also takes the genitive — as 'rajnam matah', deemed worthy by kings, where the 'kta' suffix here carries a present, not a strictly past, sense.

अधिकरणवाचिनश्च

adhikaraṇavācinaśca

A past-participle word used to denote a location likewise takes the genitive — as 'idam esham yatam' and 'idam esham bhuktam', this is their path (of going), this is their (place of) dining.

न लोकाव्ययनिष्ठाखलर्थतृनाम्

na lokāvyayaniṣṭhākhalarthatṛnām

The genitive-with-krt rule (2.3.65) does NOT apply when the krt-form replaces a finite-verb ending (a present participle), is an indeclinable, is a past-participle ('nishtha'), carries a 'khal'-class suffix, or carries the agent-suffix 'trn' — as 'odanam pacan', [one] cooking rice, which keeps the plain accusative instead.

अकेनोर्भविष्यदाधमर्ण्ययोः

akenorbhaviṣyadādhamarṇyayoḥ

The genitive-with-krt rule also does NOT apply when the future-sense suffix 'aka', or the 'in' suffix in a future or debtor-sense, is used — as 'katam karakah vrajati', which keeps its plain accusative rather than taking a genitive.

कृत्यानां कर्तरि वा

kṛtyānāṁ kartari vā

With a gerundive ('krtya') word, the agent optionally takes the genitive — though the object never does — as 'devadattasya kartavyah' beside 'devadattena kartavyah', that which is to be done by Devadatta.

तुल्यार्थैरतुलोपमाभ्यां तृतीयान्यतरस्याम्

tulyārthairatulopamābhyāṁ tṛtīyānyatarasyām

Words meaning 'equal to' or 'similar to' — apart from 'tula' and 'upama' themselves — optionally take either the instrumental or the genitive — as 'tulyah devadattena' beside 'tulyah devadattasya', equal to Devadatta.

चतुर्थी चाशिष्यायुष्यमद्रभद्रकुशलसुखार्थहितैः

caturthī cāśiṣyāyuṣyamadrabhadrakuśalasukhārthahitaiḥ

When a blessing is meant, 'ayushya' (long life), 'madra' and 'bhadra' (auspiciousness), 'kushala' (welfare), 'sukha' (happiness), 'artha' (benefit) and 'hita' (good) optionally take the dative — as 'ayushyam devadattaya bhuyat' beside 'ayushyam devadattasya bhuyat', may long life come to Devadatta.

द्विगुरेकवचनम्

dvigurekavacanam

A collective ('samahara') dvigu compound is treated as singular, denoting a single unified sense — as 'pancagavam', a group of five cows, used only in the singular though it names five.

द्वन्द्वश्च प्राणितूर्यसेनाङ्गानाम्

dvandvaśca prāṇitūryasenāṅgānām

A dvandva compound of the parts of a living being, of a musical instrument, or of an army likewise takes the collective singular — as 'panipadam', hand-and-foot, from 'pani ca padau ca'.

अनुवादे चरणानाम्

anuvāde caraṇānām

When merely restating something already known, a dvandva of the names of Vedic recitation-schools ('carana') likewise takes the collective singular — as 'udgat katakalapam', the Katha and Kalapa schools rose (to prominence).

अध्वर्युक्रतुरनपुंसकम्

adhvaryukraturanapuṁsakam

A dvandva of non-neuter words for sacrificial rites performed by the Adhvaryu priest likewise takes the collective singular — as 'arkashvamedham', from 'arkah ca ashvamedhah ca'.

अध्ययनतोऽविप्रकृष्टाख्यानाम्

adhyayanato'viprakṛṣṭākhyānām

A dvandva of things that stand close together in the order of study likewise takes the collective singular — as 'vaiyakaranairuktam', grammar-and-etymology, subjects studied back to back.

जातिरप्राणिनाम्

jātiraprāṇinām

A dvandva of class-names of non-living things likewise takes the collective singular — as 'arashastri', an awl-and-knife, from 'ara ca shastri ca'.

विशिष्टलिङ्गो नदीदेशोऽग्रामाः

viśiṣṭaliṅgo nadīdeśo'grāmāḥ

A dvandva of river-names of differing genders, or of country-names (excluding mere villages) of differing genders, likewise takes the collective singular — as 'uddhyeravati', from 'uddhyah ca iravati ca'.

क्षुद्रजन्तवः

kṣudrajantavaḥ

A dvandva of names of small creatures likewise takes the collective singular — as 'yukaliksham', louse-and-nit.

येषां च विरोधः शाश्वतिकः

yeṣāṁ ca virodhaḥ śāśvatikaḥ

A dvandva of things locked in perpetual natural enmity likewise takes the collective singular — as 'marjaramushakam', cat-and-mouse.

शूद्राणामनिरवसितानाम्

śūdrāṇāmaniravasitānām

A dvandva of the names of shudra castes not deemed ritually excluded ('anirvasita') likewise takes the collective singular — as 'takshayaskaram', carpenter-and-smith.

गवाश्वप्रभृतीनि च

gavāśvaprabhṛtīni ca

'Gavashva' and a further set of listed compounds are simply accepted as correct, ready-made forms — as 'gavashvam', cow-and-horse, from 'gauh ca ashvah ca'.

विभाषा वृक्षमृगतृणधान्यव्यञ्जनपशुशकुन्यश्ववडवपूर्वापराधरोत्तराणाम्

vibhāṣā vṛkṣamṛgatṛṇadhānyavyañjanapaśuśakunyaśvavaḍavapūrvāparādharottarāṇām

A dvandva of tree-names, wild-animal names, grass-names, grain-names, relish-names, domestic-animal names, bird-names, the pair 'horse-and-mare', and the direction-pairs 'front/back' and 'below/above' optionally takes the collective singular — as 'plakshanyagrodham' beside the plural 'plakshanyagrodhah'.

विप्रतिषिद्धं चानधिकरणवाचि

vipratiṣiddhaṁ cānadhikaraṇavāci

A dvandva of mutually opposed words, provided it does not denote a location, also optionally takes the collective singular — as 'shitoshnam' beside the dual 'shitoshne', cold-and-hot.

न दधिपय आदीनि

na dadhipaya ādīni

Even though 'dadhi', 'payas' and similar listed words might seem eligible for the earlier rule (as relish-words), their dvandva does NOT take the collective singular — as 'dadhipayasi' (dual), curd-and-milk, is retained instead.

अधिकरणैतावत्त्वे च

adhikaraṇaitāvattve ca

A dvandva of things whose substance is being measured out to a set extent likewise does NOT take the collective singular — as 'upadasham dantoshtham' stays in its plural form 'upadashah dantoshthah' instead.

विभाषा समीपे

vibhāṣā samīpe

When only an approximate measure ('roughly this much') is meant, the collective singular is optional — illustrated by 'pancagavam' and 'dashagavam' alongside the dvandva examples 'panipadam' and 'shirogrivam'.

स नपुंसकम्

sa napuṁsakam

Whatever takes this collective singular status — whether a samahara-dvigu or a dvandva — becomes grammatically neuter — as 'pancagavam' (neuter), the collective dvigu.

अव्ययीभावश्च

avyayībhāvaśca

An avyayibhava compound is likewise treated as neuter — as 'adhihari', from 'adhi harau', taking neuter status by virtue of being an avyayibhava.

तत्पुरुषोऽनञ्कर्मधारयः

tatpuruṣo'nañkarmadhārayaḥ

Apart from a negative (nan) compound and a karmadharaya, every other tatpurusha compound may likewise be treated as neuter (as a governing option carried forward) — as 'brahmanasenam' beside the feminine 'brahmanasena'.

संज्ञायां कन्थोशीनरेषु

saṁjñāyāṁ kanthośīnareṣu

As a name, a compound ending in 'kantha' (blanket/settlement) is neuter when it concerns the Ushinara country — as 'saushamikantham', the settlement of the Saushami people.

उपज्ञोपक्रमं तदाद्याचिख्यासायाम्

upajñopakramaṁ tadādyācikhyāsāyām

A compound ending in 'upajna' (first discovery) or 'upakrama' (first undertaking) is neuter when the intent is to name who first devised or began the thing — as 'paninyupajnam vyakaranam', the grammar that Panini himself first devised.

छाया बाहुल्ये

chāyā bāhulye

A compound ending in 'chaya' (shade/swarm) is neuter when abundance is meant — as 'shalabhacchayam', a swarm of locusts thick as shade.

सभा राजामनुष्यपूर्वा

sabhā rājāmanuṣyapūrvā

A compound ending in 'sabha' (assembly) is neuter when preceded by a word for 'king' or for a non-human being — as 'inasabham', the king's court, and 'rakshahsabham', the demons' assembly.

अशाला च

aśālā ca

A compound ending in 'sabha' is likewise neuter when it does not refer to a building — as 'strisabham', a gathering of women, not a hall as such.

विभाषा सेनासुराच्छायाशालानिशानाम्

vibhāṣā senāsurācchāyāśālāniśānām

A compound ending in 'sena' (army), 'sura' (liquor), 'chaya' (shade), 'shala' (hall) or 'nisha' (night) is optionally neuter — as 'brahmanasenam' beside 'brahmanasena'.

परवल्लिङ्गं द्वन्द्वतत्पुरुषयोः

paravalliṅgaṁ dvandvatatpuruṣayoḥ

In a (non-collective) dvandva or a tatpurusha, the gender of the whole compound follows the gender of its last member — as 'kukkutamayuryau', a cock-and-hen pair, taking its feminine ending from 'mayuri', the last member.

पूर्ववदश्ववडवौ

pūrvavadaśvavaḍavau

Outside the collective-singular construction, the dvandva 'ashva-vadava' (horse-and-mare) instead follows the gender of its FIRST member, as an exception — as 'ashvavadava', taking its ending from 'ashva'.

हेमन्तशिशिरावहोरात्रे च च्छन्दसि

hemantaśiśirāvahorātre ca cchandasi

In Vedic usage, the dvandva of 'hemanta' and 'shishira' (the two winter seasons), and of 'ahan' and 'ratri' (day and night), likewise follows the gender of the first member — as 'hemantashishirau rtu' and 'ahoratre urdhvashthive'.

रात्राह्नाहाः पुंसि

rātrāhnāhāḥ puṁsi

When a dvandva or tatpurusha ends in 'ratra', 'ahan' or 'aha', it is invariably masculine — as 'ahoratrah', a day-and-night, masculine because it ends in 'ratra'.

अपथं नपुंसकम्

apathaṁ napuṁsakam

'Apatha' (a wrong road) is always neuter — as 'apatham idam', this is a wrong path.

अर्धर्चाः पुंसि च

ardharcāḥ puṁsi ca

'Ardharca' (half a Vedic verse) and similar words occur in either the masculine or the neuter — as 'ardharcah' (masculine) beside 'ardharcam' (neuter).

इदमोऽन्वादेशेऽशनुदात्तस्तृतीयादौ

idamo'nvādeśe'śanudāttastṛtīyādau

Before a case-ending from the instrumental onward, when 'idam' (this) refers back anaphorically to something just mentioned, it is replaced by the unaccented substitute 'ash' — as in 'asmai chatraya kambalam dehi, atho asmai shatakam api dehi', give this student a blanket, and also give him a shawl.

एतदस्त्रतसोस्त्रतसौ चानुदात्तौ

etadastratasostratasau cānudāttau

Before the suffixes 'tra' and 'tas', when 'etad' (this) refers back anaphorically, it is replaced by the unaccented substitutes 'atra' and 'atas' — as 'etasmin grame vasamah, atho atra yukta adhimahe', we live in this village, and here we study diligently.

द्वितीयाटौस्स्वेनः

dvitīyāṭaussvenaḥ

Before the accusative, and before the suffixes 'ta' (instrumental) and 'os' (genitive/locative dual), the anaphoric pronoun is replaced by 'ena' — as 'imam chatram chandah adhyapaya, atho enam vyakaranam api adhyapaya', teach this student metre, and teach him grammar too.

आर्धधातुके

ārdhadhātuke

A governing rule: from here, every operation taught applies specifically when an 'ardhadhatuka' suffix (one not classed sarvadhatuka) follows — this heading governs a long stretch of root-substitution rules ahead.

अदो जग्धिर्ल्यप्ति किति

ado jagdhirlyapti kiti

Before the gerund suffix 'lyap', and before a 't'-initial 'kit' suffix, the root 'ad' (to eat) is replaced by 'jagdhi' — as 'jagdhah', eaten, from 'ad + kta'.

लुङ्सनोर्घसॢ्

luṅsanorghasḷ्

Before the aorist ('lun') and the desiderative ('san'), 'ad' is replaced by 'ghasl' — as in the derivation leading to 'aghasat', the aorist third person singular.

घञपोश्च

ghañapośca

Before the noun-forming suffixes 'ghan' and 'ap' too, 'ad' is replaced by 'ghasl' — as 'ghasah' (fodder) and 'praghasah'.

बहुलं छन्दसि

bahulaṁ chandasi

In Vedic usage, the substitution of 'ad' by 'ghasl' applies still more broadly and irregularly — as 'ghasam agne' and similar Vedic forms, some of which nonetheless keep the plain root.

लिट्यन्यतरस्याम्

liṭyanyatarasyām

Before the perfect ('lit'), 'ad' is optionally replaced by 'ghasl' — giving 'jaghasa' (with the substitute) alongside 'ada' (from the plain root).

वेञो वयिः

veño vayiḥ

Before the perfect, the root 'ven' (to weave) is optionally replaced by 'vayi' — giving 'uvaya' beside 'vavau'.

हनो वध लिङि

hano vadha liṅi

Before the ardhadhatuka optative/benedictive ('lin'), the root 'han' (to kill) is replaced by 'vadha' — leading to the derived form 'vadhyat'.

लुङि च

luṅi ca

Before the aorist too, 'han' is replaced by 'vadha' — leading to the derived form 'avadhit'.

आत्मनेपदेष्वन्यतरस्याम्

ātmanepadeṣvanyatarasyām

In the middle voice (atmanepada), before the aorist, 'han' is optionally replaced by 'vadha' — giving 'avadhishta' beside forms from the plain root such as 'ahata'.

इणो गा लुङि

iṇo gā luṅi

Before the aorist, the root 'i' (to go, technically 'in') is replaced by 'ga' — leading to the derived form 'agat'.

णौ गमिरबोधने

ṇau gamirabodhane

Before the causative 'nic', when the sense is not 'to make understand', the root 'in' (go) is replaced by 'gam' — as 'gamayati'.

सनि च

sani ca

Before the desiderative 'san' too, 'in' is likewise replaced by 'gam' — as 'jigamishati', he wishes to go.

इङश्च

iṅaśca

Before the desiderative, the root 'in' (to study, marked 'in') is likewise replaced by 'gam' — as 'adhijigamsate', he wishes to study.

गाङ् लिटि

gāṅ liṭi

Before the perfect, 'in' (to study) is replaced by 'gan' — leading to the derived form 'adhijage'.

विभाषा लुङ्लृङोः

vibhāṣā luṅlṛṅoḥ

Before the aorist and the conditional, 'in' is optionally replaced by 'gan' — as seen in the derivation of 'adhyagishyata'.

णौ च सन्श्चङोः

ṇau ca sanścaṅoḥ

Before a causative followed by the desiderative, or before the 'can' (reduplicated aorist) formation, 'in' is optionally replaced by 'gan' — as 'adhijigapayishati' beside 'adhyapipayishati'.

अस्तेर्भूः

asterbhūḥ

Before an ardhadhatuka suffix, the root 'as' (to be) is replaced by 'bhu' — leading to 'babhuva' (perfect) and 'bhavitum' (infinitive).

ब्रुवो वचिः

bruvo vaciḥ

Before an ardhadhatuka suffix, the root 'bru' (to speak) is replaced by 'vaci' — leading to 'uvaca' (perfect) and 'vaktum' (infinitive).

चक्षिङः ख्याञ्

cakṣiṅaḥ khyāñ

Before an ardhadhatuka suffix, the root 'caksh' (to declare/show) is replaced by 'khyan' — as 'khyatum', the infinitive.

वा लिटि

vā liṭi

Before the perfect, 'caksh' is optionally replaced by 'khyan' — giving 'acakhyau' beside the un-substituted 'acacakshe'.

अजेर्व्यघञपोः

ajervyaghañapoḥ

Before an ardhadhatuka suffix other than 'ghan' or 'ap', the root 'aj' (to throw/drive) is replaced by 'vi' — as 'vetum', the infinitive.

वा यौ

vā yau

Before the 'lyut' suffix specifically, 'aj' is optionally replaced by 'vi' — as in the derivation of 'vayuh'.

ण्यक्षत्रियार्षाञितो यूनि लुगणिञोः

ṇyakṣatriyārṣāñito yūni lugaṇiñoḥ

From gotra-words ending in the 'nya' suffix, in Kshatriya-clan gotra words, in sage-clan (arsha) gotra words, and in gotra words marked 'nit', the further suffix 'an' or 'in' (denoting 'the young descendant') is elided — as 'kauravyah pita, kauravyah putrah', the same form serving for both father and son.

पैलादिभ्यश्च

pailādibhyaśca

From 'paila' and a further listed set of words, the 'descendant' suffix is likewise elided — as 'pailah pita, pailah putrah', the same form again for father and son.

इञः प्राचाम्

iñaḥ prācām

According to the Eastern (Prachya) grammarians, the 'descendant' suffix is likewise elided from gotra words ending in the 'in' suffix — as 'pannagarih pita, pannagarih putrah'.

न तौल्वलिभ्यः

na taulvalibhyaḥ

From 'taulvali' and its group, the 'descendant' suffix is NOT elided, as an exception — 'taulvalih pita' keeps a separate son's-form, 'taulvalayanah putrah'.

तद्राजस्य बहुषु तेनैवास्त्रियाम्

tadrājasya bahuṣu tenaivāstriyām

Excluding the feminine, in the plural sense, the 'tadraja' suffix (which names the subjects of a king) is elided — as with 'aikshvakava', where the plural elides the derivational suffix 'an'.

यस्कादिभ्यो गोत्रे

yaskādibhyo gotre

From 'yaska' and its listed group, in the sense of the gotra, the suffix is elided in the plural, provided that plurality itself arises from the gotra suffix — as 'yaskah', the same form serving singular, dual and plural.

यञञोश्च

yañañośca

In genders other than the feminine, the gotra suffixes 'yan' and 'an' are similarly elided in the plural — as 'garga' (plural), from the elision of the 'yan' in 'gargya'.

अत्रिभृगुकुत्सवसिष्ठगोतमाङ्गिरोभ्यश्च

atribhṛgukutsavasiṣṭhagotamāṅgirobhyaśca

From 'atri', 'bhrgu', 'kutsa', 'vasishtha', 'gotama' and 'angiras' too, the gotra-descendant suffix is elided in the plural sense it itself generates — as 'atrayah', the descendants of Atri.

बह्वचः इञः प्राच्यभरतेषु

bahvacaḥ iñaḥ prācyabharateṣu

From a word of many syllables, the 'in' suffix taught for the Prachya and Bharata gotras is elided in the plural sense it generates — as 'pannagarah', the many descendants of Pannagara.

न गोपवनादिभ्यः

na gopavanādibhyaḥ

From 'gopavana' and its group, this elision does NOT take place, as an exception — the suffix is kept, as in 'gaupavanah'.

तिककितवादिभ्यो द्वन्द्वे

tikakitavādibhyo dvandve

From 'tika' and 'kitava' and their group, within a dvandva compound, the gotra-descendant suffix is elided in its plural sense — as 'tikakitavah', from 'taikayanayah ca kaitavayanayah ca'.

उपकादिभ्योऽन्यतरस्यामद्वन्द्वे

upakādibhyo'nyatarasyāmadvandve

From 'upaka' and its group, this elision optionally takes place even outside a dvandva compound — as 'upakamalakah'.

आगस्त्यकौण्डिन्ययोरगस्तिकुण्डिनच्

āgastyakauṇḍinyayoragastikuṇḍinac

From 'agastya' and 'kaundinya', the suffixes 'an' and 'yan' are elided and the bare stems are replaced by 'agasti' and 'kundinac' respectively — as 'agastayah' and 'kundinah'.

सुपो धातुप्रातिपदिकयोः

supo dhātuprātipadikayoḥ

A case-ending (from the set of twenty-one 'sup' endings) that has become embedded as part of a compound-forming root or stem is elided — as in the derivation of 'putraya' from 'putra + am + ya', where the inner accusative ending 'am' is dropped.

अदिप्रभृतिभ्यः शपः

adiprabhṛtibhyaḥ śapaḥ

After 'ad' (to eat) and the roots listed with it, the class-marker 'shap' is elided (a 'luk' elision) — as with 'atti', he eats, where the expected 'shap' is dropped after 'ad'.

बहुलं छन्दसि

bahulaṁ chandasi

In Vedic usage, the elision of 'shap' extends more broadly and irregularly, even to roots outside this listed class — as in Vedic forms such as 'hanati vrtram' and 'tradhvam nah devah'.

यङोऽचि च

yaṅo'ci ca

The intensive marker 'yan' is elided even before a vowel-initial suffix (and, by extension, in the wider circumstance the rule covers) — as in the derivation of 'bobhuti' from the intensive stem of 'bhu'.

जुहोत्यादिभ्यः श्लुः

juhotyādibhyaḥ śluḥ

After 'hu' (to offer in sacrifice) and the roots of its class ('juhotyadi'), the class-marker undergoes 'shlu' (a special elision that still triggers reduplication) — as 'juhoti', he offers, rather than a longer form retaining the marker.

बहुलं छन्दसि

bahulaṁ chandasi

In Vedic usage, this 'shlu' elision extends still more broadly and irregularly — as in the Vedic forms 'dati priyani', 'dhati priyani' and 'purnam vivashti'.

गातिस्थाघुपाभूभ्यः सिचः परस्मैपदेषु

gātisthāghupābhūbhyaḥ sicaḥ parasmaipadeṣu

After 'ga', 'stha', the class of 'ghu' (da/dha), 'pa' and 'bhu', in the active (parasmaipada) voice, the aorist marker 'sic' is elided — as 'abhut', it was, from 'bhu' with 'sic' dropped.

विभाषा घ्राधेट्शाच्छासः

vibhāṣā ghrādheṭśācchāsaḥ

In the active voice, after 'ghra' (to smell), 'dhet' (to drink), and the roots 'sha', 'cha' and 'sa' (to thin, cut, destroy), 'sic' is optionally elided — giving 'ashat' beside 'ashasit'.

तनादिभ्यस्तथासोः

tanādibhyastathāsoḥ

After the roots of the 'tanadi' class, before the endings 'ta' and 'thas', 'sic' is optionally elided — giving 'atata' beside 'atanishta'.

मन्त्रे घसह्वरणशवृदहादृवृजिकृगमिजनिभ्यो लेः

mantre ghasahvaraṇaśavṛdahādṛvṛjikṛgamijanibhyo leḥ

In mantra (Vedic hymn) usage, after 'ghas', 'hvr', 'nash', 'vr', 'dah', roots ending in long r, 'vrj', 'kr', 'gam' and 'jan', the aorist-marker 'cli' is elided — as in the Vedic form 'akshan pitarah', the fathers ate.

आमः

āmaḥ

After the periphrastic-perfect marker 'am', the finite-verb ending is elided — as in the derivation of 'gopayam', where what follows 'am' drops away.

अव्ययादाप्सुपः

avyayādāpsupaḥ

The feminine ('ap') and case ('sup') endings that would otherwise attach to an indeclinable are elided — as with 'tatra', an indeclinable, which keeps its bare form though it would formally take a feminine and a case suffix.

नाव्ययीभावादतोऽम्त्वपञ्चम्याः

nāvyayībhāvādato'mtvapañcamyāḥ

After an avyayibhava compound ending in short 'a', the case-ending is NOT elided; instead, apart from the ablative, it is replaced by '-am' — as 'adhigopam', from 'adhigopa'.

तृतीयासप्तम्योर्बहुलम्

tṛtīyāsaptamyorbahulam

After such an avyayibhava, the instrumental and locative endings are, with some latitude, likewise often replaced by '-am' — as 'upakumbhena krtam' beside 'upakumbham krtam'.

लुटः प्रथमस्य डारौरसः

luṭaḥ prathamasya ḍāraurasaḥ

In the periphrastic future ('lut'), the third-person endings — singular, dual, and plural — are replaced respectively by 'da', 'rau' and 'ras' — as in the derivation of 'bhavita', the future singular, from 'bhavitas + ti' with 'da' replacing the personal ending.

प्रत्ययः

pratyayaḥ

A governing rule (adhikāra): everything taught from here through the end of Book Five is termed "pratyaya" (affix).

परश्च

paraśca

An affix is always added after (para) its base — this too is a governing rule applying to every affix taught below.

आद्युदात्तश्च

ādyudāttaśca

Unless a specific rule states otherwise, the first vowel of a pratyaya (affix, as defined in 3.1.1) carries the udātta (acute) pitch accent.

अनुदात्तौ सुप्पितौ

anudāttau suppitau

An exception to 3.1.3: sup (nominal case-endings) and pit-affixes (those carrying an indicatory p) are anudātta (low-pitched), not udātta.

गुप्तिज्किद्भ्यः सन्

guptijkidbhyaḥ san

The desiderative affix san follows gup ("to protect"), tij ("to be sharp"), and kit-marked roots, yielding the specialized senses jugupsā ("loathing") and titikṣā ("forbearance") rather than a literal "wishing to protect/sharpen."

मान्बधदान्शान्भ्यो दीर्घश्च अभ्यासस्य

mānbadhadānśānbhyo dīrghaśca abhyāsasya

After mān ("to inquire"), badh ("to find fault with"), dān ("to be straightforward"), and śān ("to mark"), san is added and the reduplicative vowel lengthens: mīmāṁsate, bībhatsate, dīdāṁsate, śīśaṁsate; in other senses the same roots simply form causatives like mānayati.

धातोः कर्मणः समानकर्तृकादिच्छायां वा

dhātoḥ karmaṇaḥ samānakartṛkādicchāyāṁ vā

When the one who desires and the agent of the underlying action are the same person, san optionally follows the root to express "wishing to."

सुपः आत्मनः क्यच्

supaḥ ātmanaḥ kyac

After a nominal (sup-inflected) word naming one's own object of desire, kyac optionally follows, e.g. putrīyati "he longs for his (own) son."

काम्यच् च

kāmyac ca

Likewise, the affix kāmyac optionally forms the same sense, e.g. putrakāmyati.

उपमानात् आचारे

upamānāt ācāre

In the sense "behaving like," kyac optionally follows a nominal denoting the standard of comparison, e.g. putrīyati "behaves as toward a son."

कर्तुः क्यङ् सलोपश्च

kartuḥ kyaṅ salopaśca

From an agent-case nominal denoting the standard of comparison, kyaṅ optionally forms "behaves like," with loss of a final -s, e.g. śyenāyate "acts like a hawk."

भृशादिभ्यो भुवि अच्वेर्लोपश्च हलः

bhṛśādibhyo bhuvi acverlopaśca halaḥ

From bhṛśa and similar words (not those ending in the cvi affix), kyaṅ forms "becomes (that)," dropping a final consonant, e.g. bhṛśāyate "becomes intense."

लोहितादिडाच्भ्यः क्यष्

lohitādiḍācbhyaḥ kyaṣ

From lohita-class words and from onomatopoeic reduplications ending in ḍāc, kyaṣ forms "becomes/makes that sound," e.g. lohitāyati "turns red," paṭapaṭāyati "goes pat-pat."

कष्टाय क्रमणे

kaṣṭāya kramaṇe

In the sense "striving toward," kyaṅ is specifically prescribed after the dative kaṣṭāya, giving kaṣṭāyate "strives on despite hardship."

कर्मणो रोमन्थतपोभ्यां वर्तिचरोः

karmaṇo romanthatapobhyāṁ varticaroḥ

From the accusatives romantha ("cud") and tapas ("austerity") come kyaṅ-formed verbs meaning "to chew the cud" (romanthāyate) and "to practise austerity" (tapasyati).

बाष्पोष्माभ्यामुद्वमने

bāṣpoṣmābhyāmudvamane

From the accusatives bāṣpa ("steam/tears") and ūṣman ("heat"), kyaṅ forms "to give off (that)," e.g. bāṣpāyate.

शब्दवैरकलहाभ्रकण्वमेघेभ्यः करणे

śabdavairakalahābhrakaṇvameghebhyaḥ karaṇe

In the sense "to make/do," kyaṅ follows the six accusatives śabda, vaira, kalaha, abhra, kaṇva, and megha, e.g. śabdāyate "makes a sound."

सुखादिभ्यः कर्तृवेदनायाम्

sukhādibhyaḥ kartṛvedanāyām

When the agent personally experiences the feeling, kyaṅ follows accusatives like sukha ("pleasure"), e.g. sukhāyate "feels pleasure."

नमोवरिवश्चित्रङः क्यच्

namovarivaścitraṅaḥ kyac

Kyac optionally follows namas, varivas, and citraṅ meaning "to do/perform (that)," e.g. namasyati "pays homage."

पुच्छभाण्डचीवरात् णिङ्

pucchabhāṇḍacīvarāt ṇiṅ

From puccha ("tail"), bhāṇḍa ("vessel"), and cīvara ("robe"), ṇiṅ forms a middle-voice-only verb of "using/handling that," e.g. sañcīvarayate "puts on the robe."

मुण्डमिश्रश्लक्ष्णलवणव्रतवस्त्रहलकलकृततूस्तेभ्यो णिच्

muṇḍamiśraślakṣṇalavaṇavratavastrahalakalakṛtatūstebhyo ṇic

From ten words — muṇḍa, miśra, ślakṣṇa, lavaṇa, vrata, vastra, hala, kala, kṛta, and tūsta — the causative ṇic is added instrumentally, e.g. muṇḍayati "shaves (someone)."

धातोरेकाचो हलादेः क्रियासमभिहारे यङ्

dhātorekāco halādeḥ kriyāsamabhihāre yaṅ

From a monosyllabic root beginning with a consonant, yaṅ optionally expresses intensive/frequentative repetition, e.g. bobhūyate "keeps on becoming."

नित्यं कौटिल्ये गतौ

nityaṁ kauṭilye gatau

In the sense "to move crookedly," yaṅ is obligatory (not optional) after such a motion-verb, e.g. vāvrajyate.

लुपसदचरजपजभदहदंशगृभ्यो भावगर्हायाम्

lupasadacarajapajabhadahadaṁśagṛbhyo bhāvagarhāyām

From lup, sad, car, jap, jabh, dah, daṁś, and gṛ, yaṅ expresses contemptuous repetition of the act, e.g. lolupyate "keeps grasping (contemptibly)."

सत्यापपाशरूपवीणातूलश्लोकसेनालोमत्वग्वर्मवर्णचूर्णचुरादिभ्यो णिच्

satyāpapāśarūpavīṇātūlaślokasenālomatvagvarmavarṇacūrṇacurādibhyo ṇic

These roots/stems (satyāpa, pāśa, rūpa, vīṇā, tūla, śloka, senā, loman, tvac, varman, varṇa, cūrṇa, and the whole cur- class) obligatorily take causative ṇic before any other suffix, e.g. corayati "steals."

हेतुमति च

hetumati ca

The causative ṇic also applies whenever the action is brought about through an intermediate causer, e.g. bhāvayati "causes to become."

कण्ड्वादिभ्यो यक्

kaṇḍvādibhyo yak

From kaṇḍū ("to itch/scratch") and the other roots of that listed class, the affix yak is added, e.g. kaṇḍūyati.

गुपूधूपविच्छिपणिपनिभ्य आयः

gupūdhūpavicchipaṇipanibhya āyaḥ

From gup, dhūp, vicchi, paṇi, and pani, the affix āya is added without change of sense, e.g. gopāyati "protects."

ऋतेरीयङ्

ṛterīyaṅ

From the root ṛ in the sense "to feel disgust," the affix īyaṅ is added, giving ṛtīyate "loathes."

कमेर्णिङ्

kamerṇiṅ

From the root kam ("to desire"), the affix ṇiṅ is added without change of sense, giving kāmayate "desires."

आयादय आर्धधातुके वा

āyādaya ārdhadhātuke vā

Before an ārdhadhātuka affix, the alternatives āya, īyaṅ, and ṇiṅ optionally replace the expected affix, e.g. gopāyati beside jugupsate for gup.

सनाद्यन्ता धातवः

sanādyantā dhātavaḥ

A stem formed with any of the twelve san-group affixes (san, kyac, kyaṅ, kāmyac, kyaṣ, kvip, ṇiṅ, ṇic, yaṅ, yak, āya, īyaṅ) is itself termed a "root" (dhātu), so every further root-level rule applies to it too.

स्यतासी लृलुटोः

syatāsī lṛluṭoḥ

Before lṛṭ (simple future), the affix sya is added; before luṭ (periphrastic future), tāsi is added (its i is an indicatory marker, so only tās remains).

सिब्बहुलं लेटि

sibbahulaṁ leṭi

Before the Vedic leṭ mood, the affix sip is added inconsistently (bahulam — sometimes, not by fixed rule).

कास्प्रत्ययादाममन्त्रे लिटि

kāspratyayādāmamantre liṭi

Outside mantra texts, before liṭ (perfect), the affix ām is added after the root kās and after roots already extended by a san-group affix, e.g. kāsāñcakre "he coughed."

इजादेर्गुरुमतोऽनृच्छः

ijādergurumato'nṛcchaḥ

Before liṭ, ām is likewise added after roots (other than ṛcch) that begin with a vowel of the i/u/ṛ set and have a heavy syllable, e.g. edhāṁ cakre.

दयायासश्च

dayāyāsaśca

Before liṭ, ām is likewise added after day ("to give/protect"), ay ("to go"), and ās ("to sit"), e.g. ayāñcakre.

उषविदजागृभ्योऽन्यतरस्याम्

uṣavidajāgṛbhyo'nyatarasyām

Before liṭ, ām optionally follows uṣ ("to burn"), vid ("to know"), and jāgṛ ("to be awake"), e.g. vidāñcakāra beside vividа.

भीह्रीभृहुवां श्लुवच्च

bhīhrībhṛhuvāṁ śluvacca

Before liṭ, ām optionally follows bhī, hrī, bhṛ, and hu, and when ām is used, reduplication proceeds as with ślu (irregular loss), e.g. juhavāṁ cakre.

कृञ्चानुप्रयुज्यते लिटि

kṛñcānuprayujyate liṭi

After a root extended with ām before liṭ, one of kṛ, bhū, or as is used as an auxiliary verb carrying the actual liṭ endings, e.g. gopāyāṁ cakāra.

विदां कुर्वन्त्वित्यन्यतरस्याम्

vidāṁ kurvantvityanyatarasyām

Before loṭ (imperative), vid optionally takes ām with elision of the loṭ ending itself and the auxiliary kṛ carrying the imperative, e.g. vidāṁ kurvantu.

अभ्युत्सादयामकः प्रजनयामकः चिकयामकः रमयामकः पावयांक्रियात् विदामक्रन्निति छन्दसि

abhyutsādayāmakaḥ prajanayāmakaḥ cikayāmakaḥ ramayāmakaḥ pāvayāṁkriyāt vidāmakranniti chandasi

In Vedic texts, the irregular ām-forms abhyutsādayāmakaḥ, prajanayāmakaḥ, cikayāmakaḥ, ramayāmakaḥ, pāvayāṁkriyāt, and vidāmakran are specifically prescribed, outside the regular rules.

च्लि लुङि

cli luṅi

Before luṅ (aorist), the placeholder cli replaces the usual vikaraṇa slot, blocking śap, śyan, and the like until a further rule replaces cli itself.

च्लेः सिच्

cleḥ sic

As the default substitute for cli, the affix sic is introduced.

शलः इगुपधादनिटः क्सः

śalaḥ igupadhādaniṭaḥ ksaḥ

For a root ending in ś/ṣ/s/h, with i/u/ṛ/ḷ as its penultimate sound, and not taking iṭ, cli is replaced by ksa, e.g. duh gives adhukṣat.

श्लिषः आलिङ्गने

śliṣaḥ āliṅgane

In the sense "to embrace," śliṣ likewise takes ksa for cli, e.g. āśliṣat.

न दृशः

na dṛśaḥ

Root dṛś ("to see") is excluded from the ksa-substitution, so it forms adrākṣīt by other rules instead.

णिश्रिद्रुस्रुभ्यः कर्तरि चङ्

ṇiśridrusrubhyaḥ kartari caṅ

In the active (kartari) aorist, causative-derived (ṇic/ṇiṅ) stems and the roots śri, dru, and sru take the reduplicated caṅ in place of cli.

विभाषा धेट्श्व्योः

vibhāṣā dheṭśvyoḥ

For dheṭ ("to suck/drink") and śvi ("to swell"), caṅ is optional, giving forms like adadhat alongside adhāt and adhāsīt.

गुपेश्छन्दसि

gupeśchandasi

In Vedic usage, gup optionally takes caṅ, e.g. ajūgupatam beside agaupatam.

नोनयतिध्वनयत्येलयत्यर्दयतिभ्यः

nonayatidhvanayatyelayatyardayatibhyaḥ

The causatives of ūna, dhvan, il, and ard are specifically excluded from taking caṅ, even where the general pattern might otherwise seem to apply.

अस्यतिवक्तिख्यातिभ्योऽङ्

asyativaktikhyātibhyo'ṅ

In the active aorist, as ("to throw"), vac (replacing brū, "to speak"), and khyā ("to declare") take aṅ for cli, e.g. avocat "said."

लिपिसिचिह्वश्च

lipisicihvaśca

Lip ("to smear"), sic ("to sprinkle"), and hve ("to call") likewise take aṅ for cli, e.g. asicat.

आत्मनेपदेष्वन्यतरस्याम्

ātmanepadeṣvanyatarasyām

When a middle-voice (ātmanepada) ending follows, aṅ is only optional for lip, sic, and hve, so both asicata and asikta are valid.

पुषादिद्युताद्यॢदितः परस्मैपदेषु

puṣādidyutādyḷditaḥ parasmaipadeṣu

In the active-voice aorist, roots of the puṣ-class, the dyut-class, and ḷ-marked (ḷdit) roots take aṅ for cli, e.g. agamat.

सर्तिशास्त्यृतिभ्यश्च

sartiśāstyṛtibhyaśca

Sṛ ("to go"), śās ("to command"), and ṛ ("to go") likewise take aṅ for cli, giving asarat, aśiṣat, ārat.

इरितो वा

irito vā

Before a parasmaipada ending, ir-marked roots (such as ṇij) optionally take aṅ, giving anijat beside anaikṣīt.

जॄ स्तम्भुम्रुचुम्लुचुग्रुचुग्लुचुग्लुञ्चुश्विभ्यश्च

jṝ stambhumrucumlucugrucuglucugluñcuśvibhyaśca

These eight roots — jṝ, stambhu, mruc, mluc, gruc, gluc, gluñc, and śvi — likewise optionally take aṅ for cli.

कृमृदृरुहिभ्यश्छन्दसि

kṛmṛdṛruhibhyaśchandasi

In Vedic usage, kṛ, mṛ, dṛ, and ruh likewise take aṅ for cli, e.g. akarat, amarat, adarat, āruhat.

चिण् ते पदः

ciṇ te padaḥ

Before a t-initial (ātmanepada) ending, pad ("to go/fall") takes ciṇ for cli, giving apādi.

दीपजनबुधपूरितायिप्यायिभ्योऽन्यतरस्याम्

dīpajanabudhapūritāyipyāyibhyo'nyatarasyām

Before a t-initial ending, dīp, jan, budh, pūrī, tāy, and pyāy optionally take ciṇ for cli, giving ajani beside ajaniṣṭa.

अचः कर्मकर्तरि

acaḥ karmakartari

For a vowel-final root, before a t-ending, ciṇ optionally applies when the object itself is treated as the agent (karmakartṛ), e.g. akāri kaṭaḥ svayam eva "the mat wove itself."

दुहश्च

duhaśca

Likewise duh ("to milk") optionally takes ciṇ in the karmakartṛ construction, e.g. adohi gauḥ svayam eva.

न रुधः

na rudhaḥ

Rudh ("to obstruct") is excluded from taking ciṇ in this karmakartṛ construction.

तपोऽनुतापे च

tapo'nutāpe ca

Tap ("to be hot/suffer") is excluded from ciṇ both in the karmakartṛ construction and in the sense of "remorse."

चिण् भावकर्मणोः

ciṇ bhāvakarmaṇoḥ

Before a t-ending, ciṇ replaces cli both in the impersonal (bhāva) and passive-object (karman) senses, e.g. aśāyi bhavatā, akāri kaṭaḥ.

सार्वधातुके यक्

sārvadhātuke yak

Before a sārvadhātuka ending expressing the impersonal or passive sense, the affix yak (y) is added to the root, e.g. gamyate, sthīyate.

कर्तरि शप्

kartari śap

In the active sense, before a sārvadhātuka ending, the default vikaraṇa śap (realized as -a-) is added, applying wherever no more specific vikaraṇa is prescribed, e.g. bhavati.

दिवादिभ्यः श्यन्

divādibhyaḥ śyan

In the active sense, roots of the div-class take the vikaraṇa śyan (y), e.g. dīvyati, sīvyati.

वा भ्राशभ्लाशभ्रमुक्रमुक्लमुत्रसित्रुटिलषः

vā bhrāśabhlāśabhramukramuklamutrasitruṭilaṣaḥ

In the active sense, the eight roots bhrāś, bhlāś, bhram, kram, klam, tras, truṭ, and laṣ optionally take śyan, giving krāmyati beside kramati.

यसोऽनुपसर्गात्

yaso'nupasargāt

When not preceded by a preverb, yas ("to strive") optionally takes śyan, giving yasyati beside yasati.

संयसश्च

saṁyasaśca

Even with the preverb sam, yas optionally takes śyan, giving saṁyasyati beside saṁyasati.

स्वादिभ्यः श्नुः

svādibhyaḥ śnuḥ

In the active sense, roots of the su-class take the vikaraṇa śnu (nu), e.g. sunoti "presses out (soma)."

श्रुवः शृ च

śruvaḥ śṛ ca

In the active sense, śru ("to hear") is replaced by the shortened form śṛ, and śap by śnu, giving śṛṇoti.

अक्षोऽन्यतरस्याम्

akṣo'nyatarasyām

Akṣ optionally takes śnu, giving akṣati beside akṣṇoti.

तनूकरणे तक्षः

tanūkaraṇe takṣaḥ

In the sense "to pare/thin down," takṣ optionally takes either śap or śnu, giving takṣati beside takṣṇoti.

तुदादिभ्यः शः

tudādibhyaḥ śaḥ

In the active sense, roots of the tud-class take the vikaraṇa śa (a), e.g. tudati "hurts, pierces."

रुधादिभ्यः श्नम्

rudhādibhyaḥ śnam

Roots of the rudh-class take the infixed vikaraṇa śnam (inserted as -na- within the stem), e.g. ruṇaddhi "obstructs."

तनादिकृञ्भ्य उः

tanādikṛñbhya uḥ

Roots of the tan-class and kṛ ("to do") take the vikaraṇa u, e.g. tanoti, vidāṅkaroti.

धिन्विकृण्व्योर च

dhinvikṛṇvyora ca

For dhivi and kṛvi, along with the vikaraṇa u, the final consonant of the stem is replaced by a, giving dhinoti, kṛṇoti.

क्र्यादिभ्यः श्ना

kryādibhyaḥ śnā

Roots of the krī-class take the vikaraṇa śnā (nā), e.g. krīṇāti "buys."

स्तन्भुस्तुन्भुस्कन्भुस्कुन्भुस्कुञ्भ्यः श्नुश्च

stanbhustunbhuskanbhuskunbhuskuñbhyaḥ śnuśca

For stambhu, stunbhu, skambhu, skunbhu, and skuñ, the vikaraṇa śnu is optionally available besides śnā, giving skunoti beside skunāti.

हलः श्नः शानज्झौ

halaḥ śnaḥ śānajjhau

Before the imperative ending hi, following a consonant-final root, the vikaraṇa śnā is replaced by śānac (āna), e.g. aśāna.

छन्दसि शायजपि

chandasi śāyajapi

In Vedic usage, śnā may be replaced by either śāyac (āya) or śānac (āna), e.g. gṛbhāya, badhāna.

व्यत्ययो बहुलम्

vyatyayo bahulam

In Vedic usage, affixes (and their bases) freely interchange with one another beyond the normal rules — an irregularity the tradition simply notes rather than fully systematises.

लिङि आशिषि अङ्

liṅi āśiṣi aṅ

In Vedic benedictive (āśīr-liṅ) usage, the affix aṅ replaces the usual vikaraṇa, e.g. upageyam, gamema "may we go."

कर्मवत् कर्मणा तुल्यक्रियः

karmavat karmaṇā tulyakriyaḥ

When an agent's action looks just like the passive action normally undergone by an object (i.e. it appears to happen "by itself"), that agent is treated grammatically as if it were the object (karmakartṛ), e.g. bhidyate kāṣṭhaṁ svayam eva "the wood splits by itself."

तपस्तपःकर्मकस्यैव

tapastapaḥkarmakasyaiva

Tap takes this karmakartṛ treatment only when its own object is specifically tapas ("austerity") itself, e.g. tapyate tapas tāpasaḥ.

न दुहस्नुनमां यक्चिणौ

na duhasnunamāṁ yakciṇau

Even when duh, snu, and nam are used as karmakartṛ, they still do not take the affix yak or the ciṇ substitute, e.g. namaste daṇḍaḥ svayam eva.

कुषिरञ्जोः प्राचां श्यन् परस्मैपदं च

kuṣirañjoḥ prācāṁ śyan parasmaipadaṁ ca

According to earlier teachers (prācāṁ), kuṣ ("to draw/tear") and rañj ("to dye") take śyan and parasmaipada endings even in the karmakartṛ construction, e.g. kuṣyati pādaḥ svayam eva.

धातोः

dhātoḥ

A governing rule: through the end of this pāda's kṛt-affix section, every affix taught below is understood to follow a "root" (dhātu).

तत्रोपपदं सप्तमीस्थम्

tatropapadaṁ saptamīstham

Within this root-governed section, a word cited in the locative case is technically termed an "upapada" (an accompanying word conditioning the affix), e.g. karmaṇi in the next section names karman as upapada.

कृदतिङ्

kṛdatiṅ

Every root-affix other than the finite tiṅ verb-endings is technically termed "kṛt."

वा असरूपोऽस्त्रियाम्

vā asarūpo'striyām

Outside the feminine-affix section, wherever an exception affix of a different shape is prescribed within this kṛt section, it only optionally supersedes the general rule — both may then stand as options.

कृत्याः प्राङ् ण्वुलः

kṛtyāḥ prāṅ ṇvulaḥ

From here up to (but not including) ṇvul (3.1.133), the affixes taught are termed "kṛtya" (obligative participles of necessity), e.g. gantavyaḥ "to be gone to."

तव्यत्तव्यानीयरः

tavyattavyānīyaraḥ

The three kṛtya affixes tavyat, tavya, and anīyar are added to a root, e.g. kartavyam, karaṇīyam, both "that which ought to be done."

अचो यत्

aco yat

A vowel-final root takes the kṛtya affix yat, e.g. geyam "to be sung," peyam "to be drunk."

पोरदुपधात्

poradupadhāt

A root ending in a labial consonant (p-series) with a short a as its penultimate sound also takes yat, e.g. śapyam, labhyam.

शकिसहोश्च

śakisahośca

Śak ("to be able") and sah ("to endure") likewise take yat, giving śakyam and sahyam.

गदमदचरयमश्चानुपसर्गे

gadamadacarayamaścānupasarge

Without a preverb, gad ("to speak"), mad ("to rejoice"), car ("to graze"), and yam ("to control") take yat, giving gadyam, madyam, caryam, yamyam.

अवद्यपण्यवर्या गर्ह्यपणितव्यानिरोधेषु

avadyapaṇyavaryā garhyapaṇitavyānirodheṣu

In the specific senses "blameworthy," "marketable," and "unhindered," the forms avadya, paṇya, and varyā are individually prescribed (not derived by the general rule).

वह्यं करणम्

vahyaṁ karaṇam

In the instrumental sense, the form vahyam ("a vehicle, that by which one carries") is specifically prescribed from vah.

अर्यः स्वामिवैश्ययोः

aryaḥ svāmivaiśyayoḥ

In the senses "master" and "a person of the merchant class," the form aryaḥ is specifically prescribed from the root ṛ.

उपसर्या काल्या प्रजने

upasaryā kālyā prajane

In the sense "one whose time for conception has arrived," the form upasaryā is specifically prescribed, e.g. upasaryā gauḥ.

अजर्यं सङ्गतम्

ajaryaṁ saṅgatam

In the sense "a friendship that never grows old," the form ajaryam is specifically prescribed.

वदः सुपि क्यप् च

vadaḥ supi kyap ca

With a nominal upapada, and without a preverb, vad ("to speak") takes both the affixes kyap and yat, e.g. brahmavadyam "the speaking of the Veda."

भुवो भावे

bhuvo bhāve

With a nominal upapada, bhū ("to become") takes kyap in the abstract sense, e.g. brahmabhūyam "becoming Brahman."

हनस्त च

hanasta ca

With a nominal upapada, han ("to kill") takes kyap in the abstract sense and its final becomes t, giving brahmahatyā "the killing of a brahmin."

एतिस्तुशास्वृदृजुषः क्यप्

etistuśāsvṛdṛjuṣaḥ kyap

From i ("to go"), stu ("to praise"), śās ("to command"), vṛ ("to choose"), dṛ ("to honour"), and juṣ ("to serve"), the affix kyap is added, giving stutyaḥ, vṛtyaḥ, juṣyaḥ.

ऋदुपधाच्चाक्लृपिचृतेः

ṛdupadhāccāklṛpicṛteḥ

From roots (other than kḷp and cṛt) with ṛ as the penultimate sound, kyap is likewise added, giving vṛtyam, vṛdhyam.

ई च खनः

ī ca khanaḥ

Khan ("to dig") takes kyap, with its final vowel replaced by ī, giving kheyam "to be dug."

भृञोऽसंज्ञायाम्

bhṛño'saṁjñāyām

When no specific proper name is intended, bhṛ ("to nourish/support") takes kyap, giving bhṛtyāḥ "those to be supported, servants."

मृजेर्विभाषा

mṛjervibhāṣā

Mṛj ("to cleanse") optionally takes kyap, giving parimṛjyaḥ beside the alternative parimārgyaḥ.

राजसूयसूर्यमृषोद्यरुच्यकुप्यकृष्टपच्याव्यथ्याः

rājasūyasūryamṛṣodyarucyakupyakṛṣṭapacyāvyathyāḥ

Rājasūya, sūrya, mṛṣodya, rucya, kupya, kṛṣṭapacya, and avyathya are specifically prescribed as kyap-formations, rather than derived by the ordinary rule.

भिद्योद्ध्यौ नदे

bhidyoddhyau nade

In the sense "river," the forms bhidyaḥ (from bhid, "one that breaks its banks") and uddhyaḥ (from ujjh, "one that pours forth") are specifically prescribed.

पुष्यसिद्ध्यौ नक्षत्रे

puṣyasiddhyau nakṣatre

In the sense of the lunar asterisms, the forms puṣyaḥ (from puṣ) and siddhyaḥ (from sidh) are specifically prescribed in the locative (adhikaraṇa) sense.

विपूयविनीयजित्या मुञ्जकल्कहलिषु

vipūyavinīyajityā muñjakalkahaliṣu

In the specific senses "muñja-grass," "medicinal paste," and "a large plough," the forms vipūya, vinīya, and jityā are individually prescribed.

प्रत्यपिभ्यां ग्रहेश्छन्दसि

pratyapibhyāṁ graheśchandasi

In Vedic usage, grah ("to take/grasp") preceded by prati or api takes kyap, giving pratigrāhyam, apigrāhyam.

पदास्वैरिबाह्यापक्ष्येषु च

padāsvairibāhyāpakṣyeṣu ca

Also in the senses "footing/household," "not one's own master," "outsider," and "partisan," grah takes kyap, e.g. grāmagṛhyā.

विभाषा कृवृषोः

vibhāṣā kṛvṛṣoḥ

Kṛ ("to do") and vṛṣ ("to rain/sprinkle") optionally take kyap, giving kṛtyam beside kāryam, and vṛṣyam beside varṣyam.

युग्यं च पत्त्रे

yugyaṁ ca pattre

In the sense "fit to be yoked," the neuter form yugyam is specifically prescribed, e.g. yugyo gauḥ "an ox fit for the yoke."

अमावस्यदन्यतरस्याम्

amāvasyadanyatarasyām

With amā as upapada, vas ("to dwell") takes ṇyat in a temporal sense, with optional loss of vṛddhi, giving amāvasyā beside amāvāsyā "new-moon night."

छन्दसि निष्टर्क्यदेवहूयप्रणीयोन्नीयोच्छिष्यमर्यस्तर्याध्वर्यखन्यखान्यदेवयज्यापृच्छ्यप्रतिषीव्यब्रह्मवाद्यभाव्यस्ताव्योपचाय्यपृडानि

chandasi niṣṭarkyadevahūyapraṇīyonnīyocchiṣyamaryastaryādhvaryakhanyakhānyadevayajyāpṛcchyapratiṣīvyabrahmavādyabhāvyastāvyopacāyyapṛḍāni

In Vedic usage, seventeen specific participial forms are individually prescribed rather than derived by the general rules: niṣṭarkya, devahūya, praṇīya, unnīya, ucchiṣya, marya, staryā, adhvarya, khanya, khānya, devayajyā, āpṛcchya, pratiṣīvya, brahmavādya, bhāvya, stāvya, and upacāyyapṛḍa.

ऋहलोर्ण्यत्

ṛhalorṇyat

A root ending in ṛ, or in any consonant, takes the affix ṇyat, e.g. kāryam, hāryam, dhāryam, pāṭhyam, pākyam.

ओरावश्यके

orāvaśyake

In the sense of unavoidable necessity, a root ending in u takes ṇyat, giving lāvyam, pāvyam.

आसुयुवपिरपिलपित्रपिचमश्च

āsuyuvapirapilapitrapicamaśca

Preceded by the preverb ā, the roots su, yu, vap, rap, lap, trap, and cam take ṇyat, e.g. āsāvyam, ācāmyam.

आनाय्योऽनित्ये

ānāyyo'nitye

In the sense "not permanent," the form ānāyyaḥ (from ā + nī) is specifically prescribed.

प्रणाय्योऽसम्मतौ

praṇāyyo'sammatau

In the sense "disapproval," the form praṇāyyaḥ is specifically prescribed, as against the regular praṇeyaḥ in ordinary senses.

पाय्यसान्नाय्यनिकाय्यधाय्या मानहविर्निवाससामिधेनीषु

pāyyasānnāyyanikāyyadhāyyā mānahavirnivāsasāmidhenīṣu

In the senses "a measure," "an oblation," "a dwelling," and "a kindling-verse," the forms pāyya, sānnāyya, nikāyya, and dhāyyā are respectively prescribed.

क्रतौ कुण्डपाय्यसंचाय्यौ

kratau kuṇḍapāyyasaṁcāyyau

In the sense of a specific soma-rite, the forms kuṇḍapāyya and saṁcāyya are prescribed.

अग्नौ परिचाय्योपचाय्यसमूह्याः

agnau paricāyyopacāyyasamūhyāḥ

In the sense "sacrificial fire," the forms paricāyya, upacāyya, and samūhya are prescribed.

चित्याग्निचित्ये च

cityāgnicitye ca

In the sense "the piled altar of the agnicayana rite," the form cityaḥ is likewise prescribed, "that which is piled up."

ण्वुल्तृचौ

ṇvultṛcau

In the general agentive sense, a root takes either ṇvul (-aka) or tṛc (-tṛ), giving kārakaḥ or kartā, both "doer."

नन्दिग्रहिपचादिभ्यो ल्युणिन्यचः

nandigrahipacādibhyo lyuṇinyacaḥ

From the nandi-, grahi-, and paca-classes of roots, the agentive affixes lyu (-ana), ṇini (-in), and ac (-a) are respectively added, e.g. nandanaḥ, grāhī, pācakaḥ.

इगुपधज्ञाप्रीकिरः कः

igupadhajñāprīkiraḥ kaḥ

Roots with i/u/ṛ/ḷ as the penultimate sound, and also jñā, prī, and kṝ, take the agentive affix ka, e.g. budhaḥ, jñaḥ, priyaḥ, kiraḥ.

आतश्चोपसर्गे

ātaścopasarge

With a preverb as upapada, an ā-final root likewise takes ka, e.g. prajñaḥ, prasthaḥ.

पाघ्राध्माधेट्दृशः शः

pāghrādhmādheṭdṛśaḥ śaḥ

With a preverb as upapada, pā ("to drink"), ghrā ("to smell"), dhmā ("to blow"), dheṭ ("to suck"), and dṛś ("to see") take the affix śa, e.g. utpibaḥ, vijighraḥ.

अनुपसर्गाल्लिम्पविन्दधारिपारिवेद्युदेजिचेतिसातिसाहिभ्यश्च

anupasargāllimpavindadhāripārivedyudejicetisātisāhibhyaśca

Without a preverb, lip, vid, dhāri, pāri, ved, udeji, ceti, sāti, and sāhi likewise take śa, e.g. limpaḥ.

ददातिदधात्योर्विभाषा

dadātidadhātyorvibhāṣā

Dā ("to give") and dhā ("to place") optionally take śa, giving dadaḥ beside dāyaḥ, and dadhaḥ beside dhāyaḥ.

ज्वलितिकसन्तेभ्यो णः

jvalitikasantebhyo ṇaḥ

Roots from jval up to kas (a listed set) take the affix ṇa, e.g. jvālaḥ "flame," cālaḥ "motion."

श्यादिव्यधास्त्रुसंस्त्रुअतीणवसावहृलिहश्लिषश्वसश्च

śyādivyadhāstrusaṁstruatīṇavasāvahṛlihaśliṣaśvasaśca

Śyai and the roots vyadh, āstru, saṁstru, atīṇ, avasā, avahṛ, lih, śliṣ, and śvas likewise take ṇa, e.g. vyādhaḥ, lehaḥ, śleṣaḥ, śvāsaḥ.

दुन्योरनुपसर्गे

dunyoranupasarge

Without a preverb, du ("to burn") and nī ("to lead") take ṇa, giving dāvaḥ, nāyaḥ (contrast praṇayaḥ, with a preverb, formed differently).

विभाषा ग्रहेः

vibhāṣā graheḥ

Grah ("to seize") optionally takes ṇa, giving grāhaḥ beside grahaḥ.

गेहे कः

gehe kaḥ

In the sense "house," grah takes ka with saṁprasāraṇa (vocalisation of the semivowel), giving gṛham "house."

शिल्पिनि ष्वुन्

śilpini ṣvun

In the sense "a skilled craftsman," a root takes the affix ṣvun (-aka), e.g. nartakaḥ "dancer," khanakaḥ "digger," rajakaḥ "washerman."

गः स्थकन्

gaḥ sthakan

In the same craftsman sense, gai ("to sing") takes the affix thakan, giving gāthakaḥ "singer."

ण्युट् च

ṇyuṭ ca

Gai also takes the affix ṇyuṭ (-ana) in the same sense, giving gāyanaḥ (feminine gāyanī).

हश्च व्रीहिकालयोः

haśca vrīhikālayoḥ

In the senses "a kind of grain" and "a year," the root ohāk/ohāṅ takes ṇyuṭ, giving hāyanā "grain" and hāyanaḥ "year."

प्रुसृल्वः समभिहारे वुन्

prusṛlvaḥ samabhihāre vun

Pru ("to flow"), sṛ ("to move"), and lū ("to cut") take the affix vun (-aka) in the sense of thorough/repeated action, e.g. pravakaḥ, sarakaḥ, lavakaḥ.

आशिषि च

āśiṣi ca

In the sense of a benediction, any root may take vun in the same way, e.g. jīvakaḥ "may he live!", nandakaḥ "may he rejoice!"

कर्मण्यण्

karmaṇyaṇ

With an object-word (karman) as upapada, a root takes the agentive affix aṇ, e.g. kumbhakāraḥ "pot-maker."

ह्वावामश्च

hvāvāmaśca

With an object as upapada, hve ("to call"), ve ("to weave"), and mā ("to measure") likewise take aṇ, e.g. tantuvāyaḥ "weaver."

आतोऽनुपसर्गे कः

āto'nupasarge kaḥ

Without a preverb, an ā-final root with an object as upapada takes the affix ka, e.g. godaḥ "giver of cows."

सुपि स्थः

supi sthaḥ

With any nominal (sup-form) as upapada, sthā ("to stand") takes ka, e.g. samasthaḥ "standing evenly."

तुन्दशोकयोः परिमृजापनुदोः

tundaśokayoḥ parimṛjāpanudoḥ

With tunda ("belly") and śoka ("grief") as objects, parimṛj and apanud respectively take ka, giving tundaparimṛjaḥ, śokāpanudaḥ "grief-dispeller."

प्रे दाज्ञः

pre dājñaḥ

Preceded by pra, dā ("to give") and jñā ("to know") with an object as upapada take ka, e.g. vidyāpradaḥ "one who imparts learning," śāstraprajñaḥ.

समि ख्यः

sami khyaḥ

Preceded by sam, khyā ("to count/name") with an object as upapada takes ka, e.g. gosaṁkhyaḥ "one who counts cattle."

गापोष्टक्

gāpoṣṭak

Without a preverb, gai ("to sing") and pā ("to drink"), with an object as upapada, take the affix ṭak, e.g. sāmagaḥ "singer of Sāman hymns."

हरतेरनुद्यमनेऽच्

harateranudyamane'c

In the sense "carrying off without lifting," hṛ ("to take") with an object as upapada takes the affix ac, e.g. bhāgaharaḥ "one who takes a share."

वयसि च

vayasi ca

Even when age/growth (vayas) is implied rather than plunder, hṛ likewise takes ac, e.g. asthiharaḥ śvā "a dog that carries a bone about."

आङि ताच्छील्ये

āṅi tācchīlye

Preceded by ā, when habitual character (tācchīlya) is meant, hṛ with an object as upapada takes ac, e.g. phalāhāraḥ "one who habitually eats fruit."

अर्हः

arhaḥ

With an object as upapada, arh ("to deserve") takes ac, e.g. pūjārhā "worthy of worship."

स्तम्बकर्णयो रमिजपोः

stambakarṇayo ramijapoḥ

With stamba ("thicket") as upapada, ram takes ac; with karṇa ("ear") as upapada, jap takes ac, e.g. stambaeramaḥ "elephant" (one that delights among thickets).

शमिधातोः संज्ञायाम्

śamidhātoḥ saṁjñāyām

With śam as upapada, and in a proper-name sense, any root takes ac, e.g. śaṅkaraḥ "Śaṅkara," sambhavaḥ.

अधिकरणे शेतेः

adhikaraṇe śeteḥ

With a locative-sense upapada, śī ("to lie down") takes ac, e.g. khaśayaḥ "one that lies in a hollow."

चरेष्टः

careṣṭaḥ

In the locative sense, with a nominal as upapada, car ("to roam") takes the affix ṭa, e.g. kurucaraḥ "one who roams in the Kuru land."

भिक्षासेनादायेषु च

bhikṣāsenādāyeṣu ca

With bhikṣā ("alms"), senā ("army"), or ādāya as upapada, car likewise takes ṭa, e.g. bhikṣācaraḥ "one who goes about begging."

पुरोऽग्रतोऽग्रेषु सर्तेः

puro'grato'greṣu sarteḥ

With puras, agratas, or agre as upapada, sṛ ("to move") takes ṭa, e.g. puraḥsaraḥ "one who goes in front, harbinger."

पूर्वे कर्तरि

pūrve kartari

With pūrva ("first") in an agentive sense as upapada, sṛ takes ṭa, e.g. pūrvasaraḥ "forerunner."

कृञो हेतुताच्छील्यानुलोम्येषु

kṛño hetutācchīlyānulomyeṣu

In the senses "cause," "habitual disposition," and "favourable conformity," kṛ takes ṭa, e.g. yaśaskaraḥ "bringing renown."

दिवाविभानिशाप्रभाभास्करान्तानन्तादिबहुनान्दीकिंलिपिलिबिबलिभक्तिकर्तृचित्रक्षेत्रसंख्याजङ्घाबाह्वहर्यत्तद्धनुःसु

divāvibhāniśāprabhābhāskarāntānantādibahunāndīkiṁlipilibibalibhaktikartṛcitrakṣetrasaṁkhyājaṅghābāhvaharyattaddhanuḥsu

With any of a long specified list of upapadas (divā, vibhā, niśā, prabhā, bhāskara, anta, ananta, ādi, bahu, nāndī, kim, lipi, libi, bali, bhakti, kartṛ, citra, kṣetra, saṅkhyā, jaṅghā, bāhu, ahan, yat, tad, dhanus), kṛ takes ṭa, e.g. divākaraḥ "the sun, maker of day."

कर्मणि भृतौ

karmaṇi bhṛtau

In the sense "hired service," with an activity-word as object-upapada, kṛ takes ṭa, e.g. karmakaraḥ "servant, hired hand."

न शब्दश्लोककलहगाथावैरचाटुसूत्रमन्त्रपदेषु

na śabdaślokakalahagāthāvairacāṭusūtramantrapadeṣu

With śabda, śloka, kalaha, gāthā, vaira, cāṭu, sūtra, mantra, or pada as upapada, kṛ does NOT take ṭa (only the ordinary aṇ applies), e.g. śabdakāraḥ (not śabdakaraḥ).

स्तम्बशकृतोरिन्

stambaśakṛtorin

With stamba ("thicket") or śakṛt ("dung") as upapada, kṛ takes the affix in, giving stambakariḥ, śakṛtkariḥ.

हरतेर्दृतिनाथयोः पशौ

haraterdṛtināthayoḥ paśau

When the agent denotes an animal, with dṛti ("waterskin") or nātha as upapada-object, hṛ takes in, giving dṛtihariḥ, nāthahariḥ.

फलेग्रहिरात्मम्भरिश्च

phalegrahirātmambhariśca

The forms phalegrahiḥ ("one who takes the fruit") and ātmambhariḥ ("one who nourishes only himself") are specifically prescribed.

छन्दसि वनसनरक्षिमथां

chandasi vanasanarakṣimathāṁ

In Vedic usage, van, san, rakṣ, and math, with an object as upapada, take in, e.g. brahmavaniḥ, gosaniḥ.

एजेः खश्

ejeḥ khaś

With an object as upapada, the causative of ej ("to shake") takes the affix khaś, e.g. janejayaḥ "agitator of people."

नासिकास्तनयोर्ध्माधेटोः

nāsikāstanayordhmādheṭoḥ

With nāsikā ("nose") or stana ("breast/nipple") as object, dhmā ("to blow") and dheṭ ("to suck") take khaś, e.g. nāsikandhamaḥ.

नाडीमुष्ट्योश्च

nāḍīmuṣṭyośca

With nāḍī ("tube/reed") or muṣṭi ("fist") as object, dhmā and dheṭ likewise take khaś, e.g. nāḍindhamaḥ, muṣṭindhamaḥ.

उदि कूले रुजिवहोः

udi kūle rujivahoḥ

With kūla ("bank") as object, ruj ("to break") and vah ("to carry/flow"), preceded by ud, take khaś, e.g. kūlaṁrujaḥ, kūlaṁvahaḥ.

वहाभ्रे लिहः

vahābhre lihaḥ

With vaha or abhra ("sky") as object, lih ("to lick") takes khaś, e.g. vahaṁlihaḥ, abhraṁlihaḥ "sky-licking, very tall."

परिमाणे पचः

parimāṇe pacaḥ

With a measure-word as object, pac ("to cook") takes khaś, e.g. prasthampacā "one who cooks a prastha-measure."

मितनखे च

mitanakhe ca

With mita ("measured out") or nakha ("moist") as object, pac likewise takes khaś, e.g. mitampacā "one who cooks only a measured amount."

विधुअरुषोस्तुदः

vidhuaruṣostudaḥ

With vidhu ("moon") or arus ("wound") as object, tud ("to pain") takes khaś, e.g. vidhuntudaḥ "Rāhu, the moon-tormentor," aruntudaḥ "one who touches on a sore point."

असूर्यललाटयोर्दृशितपोः

asūryalalāṭayordṛśitapoḥ

With asūrya as object, dṛś ("to see") takes khaś; with lalāṭa ("forehead") as object, tap ("to burn") takes khaś, e.g. asūryampaśyā, lalāṭantapaḥ.

उग्रम्पश्येरम्मदपाणिन्धमाश्च

ugrampaśyerammadapāṇindhamāśca

The forms ugrampaśyaḥ, irammadaḥ, and pāṇindhamāḥ are specifically prescribed.

प्रियवशे वदः खच्

priyavaśe vadaḥ khac

With priya or vaśa as object, vad ("to speak") takes khac, e.g. priyaṁvadaḥ "one who speaks kindly," vaśaṁvadaḥ "one who brings under control."

द्विषत्परयोस्तापेः

dviṣatparayostāpeḥ

With dviṣat ("enemy") or para as object, tap takes khac, e.g. dviṣantapaḥ, parantapaḥ "scorcher of foes."

वाचि यमो व्रते

vāci yamo vrate

When a religious vow is meant, with vāc ("speech") as object, yam ("to restrain") takes khac, e.g. vācaṁyamaḥ "one under a vow of silence."

पूःसर्वयोर्दारिसहोः

pūḥsarvayordārisahoḥ

With pur ("stronghold") or sarva as object, the causative of dṝ ("to split") and sah respectively take khac, e.g. purandaraḥ "Indra, breaker of citadels."

सर्वकूलाभ्रकरीषेषु कषः

sarvakūlābhrakarīṣeṣu kaṣaḥ

With sarva, kūla, abhra, or karīṣa as object, kaṣ ("to rub/harm") takes khac, e.g. sarvaṁkaṣaḥ, abhraṁkaṣaḥ "sky-scraping."

मेघर्तिभयेषु कृञः

meghartibhayeṣu kṛñaḥ

With megha ("cloud"), ṛti ("rivalry"), or bhaya ("fear") as object, kṛ takes khac, e.g. meghaṁkaraḥ, bhayaṁkaraḥ "fearsome."

क्षेमप्रियमद्रेऽण् च

kṣemapriyamadre'ṇ ca

With kṣema, priya, or madra as object, kṛ also (optionally) takes aṇ, e.g. kṣemakāraḥ beside kṣemaṅkaraḥ.

आशिते भुवः करणभावयोः

āśite bhuvaḥ karaṇabhāvayoḥ

With āśita as upapada, bhū ("to become") takes khac in the instrumental and abstract senses, e.g. āśitaṁbhavaḥ "that by which one is satisfied."

संज्ञायां भृतॄवृजिधारिसहितपिदमः

saṁjñāyāṁ bhṛtṝvṛjidhārisahitapidamaḥ

In proper-name formation, with a nominal (often an object) as upapada, bhṛ, tṝ, vṛ, dhāri (causative of dhṛ), sah, tap, and dam take khac, e.g. viśvambharaḥ "sustainer of all," śatruñjayaḥ "conqueror of foes," yugandharaḥ.

गमश्च

gamaśca

With a nominal as upapada, gam ("to go") likewise takes khac, e.g. sutaṅgamaḥ.

अन्तात्यन्ताध्वदूरपारसर्वानन्तेषु डः

antātyantādhvadūrapārasarvānanteṣu ḍaḥ

With anta, atyanta, adhvan, dūra, pāra, sarva, or ananta as object, gam takes the affix ḍa, e.g. antagaḥ, dūragaḥ, pāragaḥ "one who reaches the far shore."

आशिषि हनः

āśiṣi hanaḥ

In a benedictory sense, with an object as upapada, han ("to kill") takes ḍa, e.g. śatruhaḥ "may he slay the foe."

अपे क्लेशतमसोः

ape kleśatamasoḥ

With kleśa ("distress") or tamas ("darkness") as object, han preceded by apa takes ḍa, e.g. kleśāpahaḥ, tamopahaḥ "dispeller of darkness."

कुमारशीर्षयोर्णिनिः

kumāraśīrṣayorṇiniḥ

With kumāra ("child") or śīrṣa ("head") as object, han takes the affix ṇini, e.g. kumāraghātī, śīrṣaghātī.

लक्षणे जायापत्योष्टक्

lakṣaṇe jāyāpatyoṣṭak

In the sense of a distinguishing mark, with jāyā ("wife") or pati ("husband") as object, han takes ṭak, e.g. jāyāghnaḥ "one marked as a wife-slayer."

अमनुष्यकर्तृके च

amanuṣyakartṛke ca

Even when the agent is non-human, with an object as upapada, han takes ṭak, e.g. śleṣmaghnaṁ madhu "honey that destroys phlegm."

शक्तौ हस्तिकपाटयोः

śaktau hastikapāṭayoḥ

In the sense of being capable, with hastin ("elephant") or kapāṭa ("door-panel") as object, han takes ṭak, e.g. hastighnaḥ "capable of killing an elephant."

पाणिघताडघौ शिल्पिनि

pāṇighatāḍaghau śilpini

In the sense "a skilled worker," with pāṇi or tāḍa as object, han takes ka with elision and the substitute gha, giving pāṇighaḥ, tāḍaghaḥ.

आढ्यसुभगस्थूलपलितनग्नान्धप्रियेषु च्व्यर्थेष्वच्वौ कृञः करणे ख्युन्

āḍhyasubhagasthūlapalitanagnāndhapriyeṣu cvyartheṣvacvau kṛñaḥ karaṇe khyun

Meaning "to make (that)," yet without the actual cvi affix, with āḍhya, subhaga, sthūla, palita, nagna, andha, or priya as upapada, kṛ takes khyun in the instrumental sense, e.g. āḍhyaṅkaraṇam "means of enriching."

कर्तरि भुवः खिष्णुच्खुकञौ

kartari bhuvaḥ khiṣṇuckhukañau

Likewise, with āḍhya and the same list as upapada, bhū takes khiṣṇuc and khukañ in the agentive sense, e.g. āḍhyambhaviṣṇuḥ, āḍhyambhāvukaḥ "one apt to grow rich."

स्पृशोऽनुदके क्विन्

spṛśo'nudake kvin

With any nominal other than udaka ("water") as upapada, spṛś ("to touch") takes the affix kvin, e.g. mantraspṛk "one who touches upon/masters a mantra."

ऋत्विग्दधृक्स्रग्दिगुष्णिगञ्चुयुजिक्रुञ्चां च

ṛtvigdadhṛksragdiguṣṇigañcuyujikruñcāṁ ca

Ṛtvij, dadhṛk, sraj, diś, uṣṇih, añc, yuj, and kruñc likewise take kvin, e.g. prāṅ "facing forward," yuṅ "yoking."

त्यदादिषु दृशोऽनालोचने कञ् च

tyadādiṣu dṛśo'nālocane kañ ca

With a pronoun like tyad as upapada, in a sense other than deliberate observation, dṛś takes kañ and kvin, e.g. tādṛś, tādṛk "of that kind, like that."

सत्सूद्विषद्रुहदुहयुजविदभिदच्छिदजिनीराजामुपसर्गेऽपि क्विप्

satsūdviṣadruhaduhayujavidabhidacchidajinīrājāmupasarge'pi kvip

With or without a preverb, and a nominal as upapada, sad, sū, dviṣ, druh, duh, yuj, vid, bhid, chid, ji, nī, and rāj take the affix kvip, e.g. vidvān, bhūmibhṛt.

भजो ण्विः

bhajo ṇviḥ

With a nominal as upapada, bhaj ("to share") takes the affix ṇvi, e.g. ardhabhāk "one who takes half a share."

छन्दसि सहः

chandasi sahaḥ

In Vedic usage, sah ("to overcome") with a nominal as upapada takes ṇvi, e.g. turāṣāṭ "swiftly triumphant."

वहश्च

vahaśca

In Vedic usage, vah ("to carry") likewise takes ṇvi, e.g. dityavāṭ.

काव्यपुरीषपुरीष्येषु ञ्युट्

kāvyapurīṣapurīṣyeṣu ñyuṭ

With kāvya, purīṣa, or purīṣya as upapada, in Vedic usage, vah takes ñyuṭ, e.g. kavyavāhanaḥ "the fire that carries offerings to the ancestors."

हव्येऽनन्तःपादम्

havye'nantaḥpādam

With havya as upapada, when vah occurs within (not at the end of) a verse-quarter, ñyuṭ is added in Vedic usage, e.g. havyavāhanaḥ.

जनसनखनक्रमगमो विट्

janasanakhanakramagamo viṭ

With a nominal as upapada, jan, san, khan, kram, and gam take the affix viṭ in Vedic usage, e.g. abjāḥ "water-born," goṣāḥ.

अदोऽनन्ने

ado'nanne

With a nominal other than anna ("food/grain") as upapada, ad ("to eat") takes viṭ, e.g. āmāt "eater of raw flesh."

क्रव्ये च

kravye ca

With kravya ("raw flesh") as upapada, ad likewise takes viṭ, e.g. kravyāt "flesh-eater, demon."

दुहः कप् घश्च

duhaḥ kap ghaśca

With a nominal as upapada, duh takes the affix kap, and the root becomes gha-final, e.g. kāmadughā "the wish-fulfilling (cow)."

मन्त्रे श्वेतवहोक्थशस्पुरोडाशो ण्विन्

mantre śvetavahokthaśaspuroḍāśo ṇvin

In mantra-texts, with śveta, uktha, or puras as upapada respectively, vah, śaṁs, and dāś take ṇvin, along with some specially prescribed forms, e.g. śvetavāḥ, puroḍāḥ "the offering-cake set forth."

अवे यजः

ave yajaḥ

Preceded by ava, yaj ("to sacrifice") takes ṇvin in mantra-texts, e.g. avayāḥ.

विच् उपे छन्दसि

vic upe chandasi

Preceded by upa, yaj takes the affix vic in Vedic usage, e.g. upayaṭ.

आतो मनिन्क्वनिब्वनिपश्च

āto maninkvanibvanipaśca

With a nominal or preverb as upapada, an ā-final root takes manin, kvanip, or vanip, e.g. sudāmā, sudhīvā, bhūridāvā.

अन्येभ्योऽपि दृश्यन्ते

anyebhyo'pi dṛśyante

These same affixes (manin, kvanip, vanip, vic) are also attested with roots other than ā-final ones, e.g. suśarmā, prātaritvā, vijāvā.

क्विप् च

kvip ca

With a nominal as upapada, the affix kvip (of which only v remains) is generally added to a root, e.g. ukhāsrat, parṇadhvat.

स्थः क च

sthaḥ ka ca

With a nominal or preverb as upapada, sthā takes both ka and kvip, giving śaṁsthaḥ beside śaṁsthāḥ.

सुप्यजातौ णिनिस्ताच्छील्ये

supyajātau ṇinistācchīlye

With a non-generic nominal as upapada, in the sense of habitual character, a root takes ṇini, e.g. uṣṇabhojī "one habitually eating hot food."

कर्तर्युपमाने

kartaryupamāne

In the agentive sense, with a simile-word as upapada, a root takes ṇini, e.g. uṣṭrakrośī "one who bawls like a camel."

व्रते

vrate

When a religious vow is meant, with a nominal as upapada, ṇini is added, e.g. sthaṇḍilaśāyī "one vowed to sleep on bare ground."

बहुलमाभीक्ष्ण्ये

bahulamābhīkṣṇye

In the sense of repeated action, ṇini is added inconsistently (bahulam), e.g. kaṣāyapāyī "one who habitually drinks decoctions."

मनः

manaḥ

With a nominal as upapada, man ("to think/consider") takes ṇini, e.g. darśanīyamānī "one who thinks himself handsome."

आत्ममाने खश्च

ātmamāne khaśca

In the sense of self-conceit, man likewise takes khaś (with the augment mum), e.g. paṇḍitammanyaḥ "one who fancies himself learned."

भूते

bhūte

From here until the rule introducing the present tense (laṭ), ṇini is to be understood as applying to a past action.

करणे यजः

karaṇe yajaḥ

With an instrumental-sense upapada, in the past-tense meaning, yaj takes ṇini, e.g. somayājī "one who has sacrificed with soma."

कर्मणि हनः

karmaṇi hanaḥ

With an object as upapada, in the past-tense meaning, han takes ṇini, e.g. pitṛvyaghātī "one who has killed his paternal uncle."

ब्रह्मभ्रूणवृत्रेषु क्विप्

brahmabhrūṇavṛtreṣu kvip

With brahma, bhrūṇa, or vṛtra as object, in the past-tense meaning, han takes kvip, e.g. brahmahā "slayer of a brahmin," vṛtrahā "slayer of Vṛtra."

बहुलं छन्दसि

bahulaṁ chandasi

In Vedic usage, han likewise takes kvip inconsistently with other upapadas too, e.g. mātṛghātaḥ, pitṛghātaḥ.

सुकर्मपापमन्त्रपुण्येषु कृञः

sukarmapāpamantrapuṇyeṣu kṛñaḥ

With su, karman, pāpa, mantra, or puṇya as upapada, kṛ takes kvip, e.g. sukṛt "well-doer," pāpakṛt "evil-doer," puṇyakṛt "doer of good deeds."

सोमे सुञः

some suñaḥ

With soma as object, su ("to press out") takes kvip, e.g. somasut "one who presses the soma."

अग्नौ चेः

agnau ceḥ

With agni ("fire") as object, ci ("to pile/arrange") takes kvip, e.g. agnicit "one who piles up the sacred fire."

कर्मण्यग्न्याख्यायाम्

karmaṇyagnyākhyāyām

With an object as upapada, ci takes kvip specifically when the resulting word itself names a (shape of the sacrificial) fire, e.g. śyenacit "the falcon-shaped fire-altar."

कर्मणीनिर्विक्रियः

karmaṇīnirvikriyaḥ

With an object as upapada, krī ("to sell") preceded by vi takes the affix ini, e.g. somavikrayī "seller of soma."

दृशेः क्वनिप्

dṛśeḥ kvanip

With an object as upapada, in the past-tense meaning, dṛś takes kvanip, e.g. pāradṛśvā "one who has seen to the far shore, an adept."

राजनि युधिकृञः

rājani yudhikṛñaḥ

With rājan ("king") as object, in the past-tense meaning, the causative of yudh and kṛ take kvanip, e.g. rājayudhvā, rājakṛtvā "who has made someone a king."

सहे च

sahe ca

With saha ("together") as upapada, in the past-tense meaning, yudh and kṛ likewise take kvanip, e.g. sahayudhvā "one who has fought alongside."

सप्तम्यां जनेर्डः

saptamyāṁ janerḍaḥ

With a locative-case word as upapada, jan ("to be born") takes the affix ḍa, e.g. sarasijaḥ "lotus, lake-born."

पञ्चम्यामजातौ

pañcamyāmajātau

With a non-generic ablative-case word as upapada, jan takes ḍa, e.g. śokajaḥ "born of grief."

उपसर्गे च संज्ञायाम्

upasarge ca saṁjñāyām

With a preverb as upapada, in a proper-name/general-noun sense, jan takes ḍa, e.g. prajāḥ "offspring."

अनौ कर्मणि

anau karmaṇi

With an object as upapada, jan preceded by anu takes ḍa, e.g. pumanujaḥ.

अन्येष्वपि दृश्यते

anyeṣvapi dṛśyate

Ḍa is also attested with jan (and khan) after other kinds of upapada, e.g. brāhmaṇajaḥ, parikhā "moat, that which is dug around."

निष्ठा

niṣṭhā

In the past-tense meaning, a root takes kta or ktavatu — both termed "niṣṭhā" — giving stutaḥ "praised," bhinnavān "one who broke (something)."

सुयजोर्ङ्वनिप्

suyajorṅvanip

Su and yaj take the kvanip-like affix ṅvanip, giving sutvā and yajvā "one who has sacrificed."

जीर्यतेरतृन्

jīryateratṛn

Jṝ ("to grow old") takes the past-tense affix atṛn, e.g. jarantau "the two who have grown old."

छन्दसि लिट्

chandasi liṭ

In Vedic usage, a root takes the perfect (liṭ) in the past-tense sense, e.g. dadarśa "he saw," ātatāna "he extended."

लिटः कानच् वा

liṭaḥ kānac vā

The perfect ending (liṭ) is optionally replaced by kānac, e.g. cakrāṇaḥ "having done."

क्वसुश्च

kvasuśca

In Vedic usage, liṭ is also optionally replaced by kvasu, e.g. gamvas.

भाषायां सदवसश्रुवः

bhāṣāyāṁ sadavasaśruvaḥ

In classical (non-Vedic) Sanskrit, sad, vas, and śru optionally take kvasu for liṭ, giving sedivān, ūṣivān, śuśruvān.

उपेयिवाननाश्वाननूचानश्च

upeyivānanāśvānanūcānaśca

The forms upeyivān, anāśvān, and anūcānaḥ are specifically prescribed.

लुङ्

luṅ

In the general past-tense sense, a root takes the aorist (luṅ), e.g. abhūt "he became."

अनद्यतने लङ्

anadyatane laṅ

When the action is explicitly marked as not-of-today, laṅ (imperfect) is used, e.g. abhavat "he was (yesterday or earlier)."

अभिज्ञावचने लृट्

abhijñāvacane lṛṭ

With a verb of recollection (like abhijānāsi) as upapada, even though the event is past-and-not-today, lṛṭ (future) is used instead, e.g. abhijānāsi... vatsyāmaḥ "you recall... we used to dwell."

न यदि

na yadi

If the word yat is also present, lṛṭ does NOT apply even with a recollection-verb as upapada.

विभाषा साकाङ्क्षे

vibhāṣā sākāṅkṣe

When the sentence remains incomplete/expectant (sākāṅkṣa — more is yet to be said), laṭ (present) is optionally used instead, with or without yat.

परोक्षे लिट्

parokṣe liṭ

For a non-today, unwitnessed (parokṣa) past event, liṭ (perfect) is used, e.g. babhūva "he had been (unwitnessed by the speaker)."

हशश्वतोर्लङ् च

haśaśvatorlaṅ ca

With ha or śaśvat as upapada, even in the parokṣa sense, laṅ is optionally used alongside liṭ, e.g. iti hākarot beside iti ha cakāra.

प्रश्ने चासन्नकाले

praśne cāsannakāle

In a question about the recent past (āsannakāla, roughly within five years), either laṅ or laṭ may be used, e.g. devadatto 'gacchat kim? "did Devadatta go?"

लट् स्मे

laṭ sme

With sma as upapada, laṭ (present) is used even in a not-today, non-parokṣa past sense, e.g. yudhiṣṭhiro yajate sma "Yudhiṣṭhira used to sacrifice."

अपरोक्षे च

aparokṣe ca

Also for a witnessed (aparokṣa), not-today past event, laṭ is used with sma as upapada, e.g. gurur mām adhyāpayati sma "my teacher used to teach me."

ननौ पृष्टप्रतिवचने

nanau pṛṣṭaprativacane

With nanu as upapada, in answering a past-tense question, laṭ is used, e.g. nanu karomi bhoḥ "why yes, I do (have done so)."

नन्वोर्विभाषा

nanvorvibhāṣā

With na or nu as upapada, in answering a past-tense question, laṭ is optionally used instead of the expected past tense.

पुरि लुङ् चास्मे

puri luṅ cāsme

With purā ("formerly") as upapada but without sma, luṅ (aorist) is also an option (alongside laṭ, laṅ, liṭ), e.g. purā'yāsīt.

वर्तमाने लट्

vartamāne laṭ

In the present-tense sense, a root takes laṭ, e.g. pacati "cooks."

लटः शतृशानचावप्रथमासमानाधिकरणे

laṭaḥ śatṛśānacāvaprathamāsamānādhikaraṇe

When the participle agrees with a noun in a case other than the nominative, laṭ is replaced by śatṛ or śānac, giving pacantam, pacamānam ("cooking," accusative etc.).

सम्बोधने च

sambodhane ca

Also in the vocative, laṭ is replaced by śatṛ/śānac, e.g. he pacan, he pacamāna "O (you who are) cooking."

लक्षणहेत्वोः क्रियायाः

lakṣaṇahetvoḥ kriyāyāḥ

When the participle marks an accompanying sign or the cause of another action, laṭ is likewise replaced by śatṛ/śānac, e.g. śayāno bhuṅkte "he eats while (as a sign) lying down."

तौ सत्

tau sat

Śatṛ and śānac are together termed "sat" (a technical cover-term used in later rules).

पूङ्यजोः शानन्

pūṅyajoḥ śānan

Pūṅ ("to purify") and yaj specifically take śānan (a variant of śānac), giving pavamānaḥ, yajamānaḥ.

ताच्छील्यवयोवचनशक्तिषु चानश्

tācchīlyavayovacanaśaktiṣu cānaś

In the senses of habitual disposition, indicating age, and capability, a root takes cānaś, e.g. muṇḍayamānāḥ "those with shaven heads (habitually so)."

इङ्धार्योः शतृ ऋच्छ्रिणि

iṅdhāryoḥ śatṛ ṛcchriṇi

Iṅ ("to study") and dhāri (causative of dhṛ) take śatṛ in the present sense, when the action is not arduous, e.g. adhīyan, dhārayan.

द्विषोऽमित्रे

dviṣo'mitre

In the sense "enemy," dviṣ ("to hate") takes śatṛ in the present sense, e.g. dviṣan "an enemy, one who hates."

सुञो यज्ञसंयोगे

suño yajñasaṁyoge

In the sense of pressing soma at a sacrifice, su takes śatṛ, e.g. sunvantaḥ "those pressing (the soma)."

अर्हः पूजायाम्

arhaḥ pūjāyām

In the sense of praise/worthiness, arh takes śatṛ, e.g. arhan "worthy of esteem."

आक्वेस्तच्छीलतद्धर्मतत्साधुकारिषु

ākvestacchīlataddharmatatsādhukāriṣu

From here through 3.2.177 (the affix kvip after bhrāj etc.), every affix taught expresses one of three senses: tacchīla (doing something habitually by nature), taddharma (doing it as one's proper role, even without that nature), or tatsādhukāritā (doing it skilfully).

तृन्

tṛn

In these tacchīla-etc. senses, a root takes the agentive affix tṛn, e.g. kartā "a maker, one given to making."

अलंकृञ्निराकृञ्प्रजनोत्पचोत्पतोन्मदरुच्यपत्रपवृतुवृधुसहचर इष्णुच्

alaṁkṛñnirākṛñprajanotpacotpatonmadarucyapatrapavṛtuvṛdhusahacara iṣṇuc

These roots — alaṅkṛ, nirākṛ, prajan, utpac, utpat, unmad, ruc, apatrap, vṛt, vṛdh, sah, and car — take the affix iṣṇuc in the same senses, e.g. alaṅkariṣṇuḥ, vardhiṣṇuḥ, sahiṣṇuḥ "patient, enduring."

णेश्छन्दसि

ṇeśchandasi

In Vedic usage, a causative (ṇic-formed) stem likewise takes iṣṇuc, e.g. dhārayiṣṇavaḥ.

भुवश्च

bhuvaśca

In Vedic usage, bhū likewise takes iṣṇuc, e.g. bhaviṣṇuḥ.

ग्लाजिस्थश्च क्स्नुः

glājisthaśca ksnuḥ

Glai, ji, and sthā take the affix ksnu in the same senses, giving glāsnuḥ, jiṣṇuḥ, sthāsnuḥ.

त्रसिगृधिधृषिक्षिपेः क्नुः

trasigṛdhidhṛṣikṣipeḥ knuḥ

Tras, gṛdh, dhṛṣ, and kṣip take the affix knu in the same senses, giving trasnuḥ, gṛdhnuḥ, dhṛṣṇuḥ.

शमित्यष्टाभ्यो घिनुण्

śamityaṣṭābhyo ghinuṇ

Śam and seven other listed roots take the affix ghinuṇ in the same senses, giving śamī, damī, kṣamī "forbearing."

संपृचानुरुधाङ्यमाङ्यसपरिसृसंसृजपरिदेविसंज्वरपरिक्षिपपरिवदपरिदहपरिमुहदुषद्विषद्रुहदुहयुजाक्रीडविविचत्यजरजभजातिचरापचरामुषाभ्याहनश्च

saṁpṛcānurudhāṅyamāṅyasaparisṛsaṁsṛjaparidevisaṁjvaraparikṣipaparivadaparidahaparimuhaduṣadviṣadruhaduhayujākrīḍavivicatyajarajabhajāticarāpacarāmuṣābhyāhanaśca

A long further list of roots (sampṛc, anurudh, āṅyam, āṅyas, parisṛ, saṁsṛj, paridevi, saṁjvar, parikṣip, parivad, paridah, parimuh, duṣ, dviṣ, druh, duh, yuj, ākrīḍ, vivic, tyaj, raj, bhaj, aticar, apacar, āmuṣ, abhyāhan) likewise takes ghinuṇ, e.g. sampṛkī, anurodhī, parivādī.

वौ कषलसकत्थस्रम्भः

vau kaṣalasakatthasrambhaḥ

Preceded by vi, kaṣ, las, katth, and strambhu take ghinuṇ, giving vikāṣī, vilāsī, vikatthī "boastful."

अपे च लषः

ape ca laṣaḥ

Preceded by apa (and also by vi), laṣ takes ghinuṇ, giving apalāṣī, vilāṣī "desirous."

प्रे लपसृद्रुमथवदवसः

pre lapasṛdrumathavadavasaḥ

Preceded by pra, lap, sṛ, dru, manth, vad, and vas take ghinuṇ, giving pralāpī, pravāsī "one habitually away from home."

निन्दहिंसक्लिशखादविनाशपरिक्लिशपरिरटपरिवादिव्याभाषासूयो वुञ्

nindahiṁsakliśakhādavināśaparikliśapariraṭaparivādivyābhāṣāsūyo vuñ

Nind, hiṁs, kliś, khād, vināś (causative of naś), pariklīś, parirat, parivādi (causative of vad), vyābhāṣ, and asūy take the affix vuñ in these senses, e.g. nindakaḥ, hiṁsakaḥ, asūyakaḥ "envious."

देविक्रुशोश्चोपसर्गे

devikruśoścopasarge

With a preverb, the causative of div and krúś likewise take vuñ, giving ādevakaḥ, ākrośakaḥ.

चलनशब्दार्थादकर्मकाद् युच्

calanaśabdārthādakarmakād yuc

An intransitive root meaning "to move" or "to make a sound" takes the affix yuc in these senses, giving calanaḥ, śabdanaḥ.

अनुदात्तेतश्च हलादेः

anudāttetaśca halādeḥ

A consonant-initial intransitive root with a low-toned indicatory vowel likewise takes yuc, giving vartanaḥ, spardhanaḥ.

जुचङ्क्रम्यदन्द्रम्यसृगृधिज्वलशुचलषपतपदः

jucaṅkramyadandramyasṛgṛdhijvalaśucalaṣapatapadaḥ

Ju, the intensive of kram, the intensive of dram, sṛ, gṛdh, jval, śuc, laṣ, pat, and pad take yuc in these senses, giving javanaḥ, saraṇaḥ, jvalanaḥ.

क्रुधमण्डार्थेभ्यश्च

krudhamaṇḍārthebhyaśca

Roots meaning "to be angry" or "to adorn" likewise take yuc, giving krodhanaḥ "irascible," bhūṣaṇaḥ.

न यः

na yaḥ

A y-final root does NOT take yuc (tṛn applies instead).

सूददीपदीक्षश्च

sūdadīpadīkṣaśca

Sūd, dīp, and dīkṣ are likewise excluded from taking yuc.

लषपतपदस्थाभूवृषहनकमगमशॄभ्य उकञ्

laṣapatapadasthābhūvṛṣahanakamagamaśṝbhya ukañ

Laṣ, pat, pad, sthā, bhū, vṛṣ, han, kam, gam, and śṝ take the affix ukañ in these senses, e.g. apalāṣukam "desirous."

जल्पभिक्षकुट्टलुण्टवृङ्भ्यः षाकन्

jalpabhikṣakuṭṭaluṇṭavṛṅbhyaḥ ṣākan

Jalp, bhikṣ, kuṭṭ, luṇṭ, and vṛṅ take the affix ṣākan, giving jalpākaḥ, bhikṣākaḥ, varākaḥ "wretched, needy."

प्रजोरिनिः

prajoriniḥ

Preceded by pra, ji ("to conquer/be swift") takes the affix ini, e.g. prajavī "swift."

जिदृक्षिविश्रीण्वमाव्यथाभ्यमपरिभूप्रसूभ्यश्च

jidṛkṣiviśrīṇvamāvyathābhyamaparibhūprasūbhyaśca

Ji, dṛ, kṣi, viśri, i, vam, avyatha, abhyam, paribhū, and prasū likewise take ini, giving jayī, vamī, paribhavī.

स्पृहिगृहिपतिदयिनिद्रातन्द्राश्रद्धाभ्य आलुच्

spṛhigṛhipatidayinidrātandrāśraddhābhya āluc

Spṛh, gṛh, pat, day, nidrā, tandrā, and śraddhā take the affix āluc, giving dayāluḥ "compassionate," śraddhāluḥ "faithful," nidrāluḥ "drowsy."

दाधेट्सिशदसदः उः

dādheṭsiśadasadaḥ uḥ

Dā, dheṭ, si, śad, and sad take the affix u, giving dāruḥ, sadruḥ.

सृघस्यदःक्मरच्

sṛghasyadaḥkmarac

Sṛ, ghas, and ad take the affix kmarac, giving sṛmaraḥ, ghasmaraḥ "greedy eater."

भञ्जभासमिदो घुरच्

bhañjabhāsamido ghurac

Bhañj, bhās, and bhid take the affix ghurac, giving bhaṅguram "fragile, breakable."

विदिभिदिच्छिदेः कुरच्

vidibhidicchideḥ kurac

Vid ("to know"), bhid, and chid take the affix kurac (realized as -ura), giving viduraḥ "wise," bhiduram "fragile."

इण्नश्जिसर्तिभ्यः क्वरप्

iṇnaśjisartibhyaḥ kvarap

I, naś, ji, and sṛ take the affix kvarap (-vara), giving itvaraḥ, naśvaraḥ "perishable."

गत्वरश्च

gatvaraśca

Gam likewise takes kvarap, with loss of its nasal, giving gatvaraḥ "fast-moving."

जागरूकः

jāgarūkaḥ

Jāgṛ ("to be awake") takes the affix ūka, giving jāgarūkaḥ "watchful, vigilant."

यजजपदशां यङः

yajajapadaśāṁ yaṅaḥ

The intensive (yaṅ) forms of yaj, jap, and daṁś take the affix ūka, giving yāyajūkaḥ, jañjapūkaḥ.

नमिकम्पिस्म्यजसकमहिंसदीपो रः

namikampismyajasakamahiṁsadīpo raḥ

Nam, kamp, smi, ajas, kam, hiṁs, and dīp take the affix ra, giving namraḥ "bending," kampraḥ "trembling."

सन्नाशंसभिक्ष उः

sannāśaṁsabhikṣa uḥ

A desiderative (san-formed) stem, and also āśaṁs and bhikṣ, take the affix u, giving cikīrṣuḥ "one desiring to do."

विन्दुरिच्छुः

vinduricchuḥ

The forms vinduḥ (from vid, with nasal augment) and icchuḥ (from iṣ, with ṣ replaced by ch) are specifically prescribed.

क्यात् छन्दसि

kyāt chandasi

In Vedic usage, a stem formed with kyac/kyaṅ/kyaṣ takes the affix u, giving devayuḥ, sumnayuḥ.

आतृगमहनजनः किकिनौ लिट् च

ātṛgamahanajanaḥ kikinau liṭ ca

A-final and ṛ-final roots, along with gam, han, and jan, take ka and kin in Vedic usage, treated like the perfect (liṭ), giving dadiḥ, jagmiḥ.

स्वपितृषोर्नजिङ्

svapitṛṣornajiṅ

Svap ("to sleep") and tṛṣ ("to be thirsty") take the affix najiṅ, giving svapnajaḥ, tṛṣṇajaḥ.

शॄवन्द्योरारुः

śṝvandyorāruḥ

Śṝ and vand take the affix āru, giving śarāruḥ "destructive," vandāruḥ "one who habitually pays homage."

भियः क्रुक्लुकनौ

bhiyaḥ kruklukanau

Bhī ("to fear") takes the affixes kru and lukan, giving bhīruḥ and bhīlukaḥ "timid."

स्थेशभासपिसकसो वरच्

stheśabhāsapisakaso varac

Sthā, īś, bhās, pis, and kas take the affix varac, giving sthāvaraḥ "immovable," īśvaraḥ "lord," bhāsvaraḥ "shining."

यश्च यङः

yaśca yaṅaḥ

The intensive form of yā ("to go") likewise takes varac, giving yāyāvaraḥ "wanderer."

भ्राजभासधुर्विद्युतोर्जिपॄजुग्रावस्तुवः क्विप्

bhrājabhāsadhurvidyutorjipṝjugrāvastuvaḥ kvip

Bhrāj, bhās, dhurv, dyut, ūrj, pṝ, ju, and stu (with grāva as upapada) take the affix kvip, giving vibhrāṭ, bhāḥ, dhūḥ "burden."

अन्येभ्योऽपि दृश्यते

anyebhyo'pi dṛśyate

Kvip is also attested with other roots in this same sense, e.g. pak, bhit, yuk.

भुवः संज्ञान्तरयोः

bhuvaḥ saṁjñāntarayoḥ

When a proper name or the sense of "superior/distinct" is meant, bhū takes kvip, giving vibhūḥ, svayambhūḥ "self-existent," pratibhūḥ "surety."

विप्रसम्भ्यो डु असंज्ञायाम्

viprasambhyo ḍu asaṁjñāyām

Preceded by vi, pra, or sam, and when no specific communal name is meant, bhū takes the affix ḍu, giving vibhuḥ, prabhuḥ "lord, capable one," sambhuḥ.

धः कर्मणि ष्ट्रन्

dhaḥ karmaṇi ṣṭran

Dheṭ and dhā take the affix ṣṭran in the object-sense, giving dhātrī "nurse, one who sustains."

दाप्नीशसयुयुजस्तुतुदसिसिचमिहपतदशनहः करणे

dāpnīśasayuyujastutudasisicamihapatadaśanahaḥ karaṇe

In the instrumental sense, thirteen roots (dāp, nī, śas, yu, yuj, stu, tud, si, sic, mih, pat, daṁś, nah) take ṣṭran, giving dātram "sickle," netram "eye," śastram "weapon."

हलसूकरयोः पुवः

halasūkarayoḥ puvaḥ

In the sense of a part of a plough or of a pig, pū takes ṣṭran, giving potram "ploughshare/snout."

अर्तिलूधूसूखनसहचर इत्रः

artilūdhūsūkhanasahacara itraḥ

In the instrumental sense, seven roots (ṛ, lū, dhū, sū, khan, sah, car) take the affix itra, giving aritram "oar," khanitram "spade."

पुवः संज्ञायाम्

puvaḥ saṁjñāyām

In proper-name formation, pū ("to purify") takes itra in the instrumental sense, giving pavitram "means of purification."

कर्तरि चर्षिदेवतयोः

kartari carṣidevatayoḥ

Pū also takes itra in the sense of a purifying sage (instrumental) or a purifying deity (agentive), e.g. pavitraḥ ṛṣiḥ, agniḥ pavitram.

ञीत इतः क्तः

ñīta itaḥ ktaḥ

Roots marked with indicatory ñi take the affix kta in a present-tense sense (rather than strictly past), giving munnaḥ, kṣviṇṇaḥ, dhṛṣṭaḥ "bold."

मतिबुद्धिपूजार्थेभ्यश्च

matibuddhipūjārthebhyaśca

Roots meaning "wish," "know," and "honour" likewise take kta in a present-tense sense, giving mataḥ "esteemed," buddhaḥ "understood," pūjitaḥ "honoured." This closes Pāda 2 of Adhyāya Three.

उणादयो बहुलम्

uṇādayo bahulam

In naming words, roots take the uṇ-class affixes inconsistently (bahulam), e.g. kāruḥ "craftsman" from kṛ.

भूतेऽपि दृश्यन्ते

bhūte'pi dṛśyante

The uṇ-affixes are also found forming words with a past-tense sense, e.g. vartma "path" (that which has been travelled), carma "hide."

भविष्यति गम्यादयः

bhaviṣyati gamyādayaḥ

In a future sense, forms like gamī and others are regular, e.g. āgāmī "coming," bhāvī "about to be."

यावत्पुरानिपातयोर्लट्

yāvatpurānipātayorlaṭ

With the particle yāvat or purā as upapada, laṭ (present) is used even for a future sense, e.g. yāvad bhuṅkte "while/until he eats."

विभाषा कदाकर्ह्योः

vibhāṣā kadākarhyoḥ

With kadā or karhi ("when") as upapada, laṭ is optionally used for the future, e.g. kadā bhuṅkte beside kadā bhokṣyate.

किंवृत्ते लिप्सायाम्

kiṁvṛtte lipsāyām

With an inflected form of kim as upapada, in the sense of "wishing to obtain," laṭ optionally expresses the future, e.g. kaṁ bhojayati "whom will he feed?"

लिप्स्यमानसिद्धौ च

lipsyamānasiddhau ca

When obtaining the desired thing entails some further consequence, laṭ likewise optionally expresses the future, e.g. yo bhaktaṁ dadāti sa svargaṁ gacchati "whoever gives food goes to heaven."

लोडर्थलक्षणे च

loḍarthalakṣaṇe ca

When the future clause sets a condition for an implied imperative, laṭ optionally expresses it, e.g. upādhyāyaścet āgacchati, atha tvaṁ paṭha "if the teacher comes, then you study."

लिङ् चोर्ध्वमौहूर्तिके

liṅ cordhvamauhūrtike

When the conditioning event lies beyond the next muhūrta (about 48 minutes), liṅ is optionally used as well, e.g. upādhyāyaścet āgacchet.

तुमुन्ण्वुलौ क्रियायां क्रियार्थायाम्

tumunṇvulau kriyāyāṁ kriyārthāyām

When one action is undertaken for the purpose of another, tumun and ṇvul express the future purpose, e.g. draṣṭuṁ yāti "goes to see," darśakaḥ "spectator."

भाववचनाश्च

bhāvavacanāśca

Abstract-noun affixes likewise serve this purpose-clause function, e.g. puṣṭaye vrajati "goes for the sake of nourishment."

अण् कर्मणि च

aṇ karmaṇi ca

With an object as upapada, in this same purposive sense, aṇ is used for the future, e.g. kāṇḍalāvo vrajati "goes to cut branches."

लृट् शेषे च

lṛṭ śeṣe ca

In the general (residual) future sense, whether or not a purpose-clause is present, lṛṭ is used, e.g. ahaṁ paṭhiṣyāmi "I shall study."

लृटः सत् वा

lṛṭaḥ sat vā

When agreeing with a noun in a case other than the nominative, lṛṭ is optionally replaced by śatṛ or śānac, giving kariṣyantam beside kariṣyamāṇam.

अनद्यतने लुट्

anadyatane luṭ

When the action will occur on some day after today (not-today future), luṭ is used, e.g. rāvaṇaḥ śvaḥ kartā "Rāvaṇa will do it tomorrow."

पदरुजविशस्पृशो घञ्

padarujaviśaspṛśo ghañ

Pad, ruj, viś, and spṛś take the affix ghañ, giving pādaḥ "foot," rogaḥ "disease," veśaḥ "entry," sparśaḥ "touch."

सृ स्थिरे

sṛ sthire

In the sense of a firm/solid substance as agent, sṛ takes ghañ, giving candanasāraḥ "the fine essence of sandalwood."

भावे

bhāve

In the abstract sense of the action itself, a root takes ghañ, giving pākaḥ "the act of cooking," tyāgaḥ "renunciation," rāgaḥ "colouring, passion."

अकर्तरि च कारके संज्ञायाम्

akartari ca kārake saṁjñāyām

In proper-name/general-noun formation, ghañ is used for any kāraka other than the agent, e.g. rāgaḥ "the dye, that by which one is coloured."

परिमाणाख्यायां सर्वेभ्यः

parimāṇākhyāyāṁ sarvebhyaḥ

In naming a unit of measure, every root takes ghañ, e.g. kārāḥ (a measure).

इङः च

iṅaḥ ca

Iṅ ("to study") likewise takes ghañ, giving adhyāyaḥ "chapter, study session."

उपसर्गे रुवः

upasarge ruvaḥ

With a preverb as upapada, ru ("to make a sound") takes ghañ, giving saṁrāvaḥ "clamour."

समि युद्रुद्रुवः

sami yudrudruvaḥ

Preceded by sam, yu and dru take ghañ, giving saṁyāvaḥ "a sweet dish," sandrāvaḥ "fleeing."

श्रिणीभुवोऽन्यतरस्याम्

śriṇībhuvo'nyatarasyām

Without a preverb, śri, nī, and bhū optionally take ghañ, giving śrāyaḥ, nāyaḥ, bhāvaḥ "being, state."

वौ क्षुस्रुवः

vau kṣusruvaḥ

Preceded by vi, kṣu and śru take ghañ, giving vikṣāvaḥ, viśrāvaḥ "great renown."

अवोदोर्नियः

avodorniyaḥ

Preceded by ava or ud, nī takes ghañ, giving avanāyaḥ "decline," unnāyaḥ "rise."

प्रे द्रुस्तुस्रुवः

pre drustusruvaḥ

Preceded by pra, dru, stu, and sru take ghañ, giving pradrāvaḥ "fleeing," prastāvaḥ "preamble," prastrāvaḥ "flowing forth."

निरभ्योः पूल्वोः

nirabhyoḥ pūlvoḥ

Preceded by nis, pū takes ghañ; preceded by abhi, lū takes ghañ, giving niṣpāvaḥ "purification," abhilāvaḥ "cutting."

उदन्योर्गृः

udanyorgṛḥ

Preceded by ud or ni, gṛ ("to swallow") takes ghañ, giving udgāraḥ "belch," nigāraḥ "food."

कॄ धान्ये

kṝ dhānye

When related to grain, kṝ (preceded by ud/ni) takes ghañ, giving utkāraḥ, nikāraḥ (grain-winnowing actions).

यज्ञे समि स्तुवः

yajñe sami stuvaḥ

In a sacrificial context, stu preceded by sam takes ghañ, giving saṁstāvaḥ "liturgical praise."

प्रे स्त्रोऽयज्ञे

pre stro'yajñe

Outside a sacrificial context, stṝ ("to spread") preceded by pra takes ghañ, giving prastāraḥ "extension."

प्रथने वावशब्दे

prathane vāvaśabde

In the sense of spreading (other than of sound), stṝ preceded by vi takes ghañ, giving vistāraḥ "expansion."

छन्दोनाम्नि च

chandonāmni ca

In naming a specific Vedic metre, stṝ preceded by ni takes ghañ, giving forms like viṣṭārapaṅktiḥ (a metre name).

उदि ग्रहः

udi grahaḥ

Grah preceded by ud takes ghañ, giving udgrāhaḥ "grasping/learning."

समि मुष्टौ

sami muṣṭau

In the sense "clenching a fist," grah preceded by sam takes ghañ, giving saṁgrāhaḥ.

परिन्योर्नीइणोर्द्यूताभ्रेषयोः

parinyornīiṇordyūtābhreṣayoḥ

Preceded by pari, nī takes ghañ in the sense "gambling" (dyūta); preceded by ni, i takes ghañ in the sense "abhreṣa," e.g. pariṇayaḥ.

परावनुपात्यये इणः

parāvanupātyaye iṇaḥ

In the sense of regular sequence, i preceded by pari takes ghañ, giving paryāyaḥ "turn, sequence."

व्युपयोः शेतेः पर्याये

vyupayoḥ śeteḥ paryāye

In the sense of taking turns, śī preceded by vi or upa takes ghañ, giving viśāyaḥ.

हस्त आदाने चेरस्तेये

hasta ādāne cerasteye

In the sense of taking by hand (not theft), ci takes ghañ, giving pracāyaḥ.

निवासचितिशरीरोपसमाधानेष्वादेश्च कः

nivāsacitiśarīropasamādhāneṣvādeśca kaḥ

In the senses "dwelling," "consciousness," "body," and "heaping up," ci takes ghañ with its initial replaced by k, giving nikāyaḥ "abode, aggregate."

सङ्घे च अनौत्तराधर्ये

saṅghe ca anauttarādharye

In the sense of a group without regard to before/after ordering, ci takes ghañ, giving brāhmaṇanikāyaḥ "a community of brahmins."

कर्मव्यतिहारे णच् स्त्रियाम्

karmavyatihāre ṇac striyām

In the sense of mutual, reciprocal action, in the feminine, a root takes ṇac, giving vyāvakrośī "mutual shouting at each other."

अभिविधौ भावे इनुण्

abhividhau bhāve inuṇ

In the sense of thoroughgoing pervasion, a root in the abstract sense takes the affix inuṇ, giving sāṅkūṭinam "thoroughly crooked."

आक्रोशेऽवन्योर्ग्रहः

ākrośe'vanyorgrahaḥ

In the sense of reproach, grah preceded by ava or ni takes ghañ, giving avagrahaḥ, nigrahaḥ "suppression, restraint."

प्रे लिप्सायाम्

pre lipsāyām

In the sense of wanting to obtain, grah preceded by pra takes ghañ, giving pātrapragrāha "the desire to grasp a vessel."

परौ यज्ञे

parau yajñe

In a sacrificial sense, a root preceded by pari takes ghañ, giving uttaraparigrāhaḥ "construction of the northern altar."

नौ वृ धान्ये

nau vṛ dhānye

In naming a grain, vṛ preceded by ni takes ghañ, giving nīvārāḥ "a wild grain species."

उदि श्रयतियौतिपूद्रुवः

udi śrayatiyautipūdruvaḥ

Preceded by ud, śri, yu, pū, and dru take ghañ, giving ucchrāyaḥ "height," uddrāvaḥ "fleeing."

विभाषाऽऽङि रुप्लुवोः

vibhāṣā''ṅi rupluvoḥ

Preceded by ā, ru and plu optionally take ghañ, giving ārāvaḥ "outcry."

अवे ग्रहो वर्षप्रतिबन्धे

ave graho varṣapratibandhe

In the sense of a rain-drought, grah preceded by ava optionally takes ghañ, giving avagrāhaḥ beside avagrahaḥ.

प्रे वणिजाम्

pre vaṇijām

In a sense connected with merchants, grah preceded by pra optionally takes ghañ, giving tulāpragrāhaḥ beside tulāpragrahaḥ "the balance-cord."

रश्मौ च

raśmau ca

In the sense "rein," grah preceded by pra likewise optionally takes ghañ, giving pragrāhaḥ beside pragrahaḥ.

वृणोतेराच्छादने

vṛṇoterācchādane

In the sense "covering," vṛ preceded by pra optionally takes ghañ, giving pravāraḥ "a covering, wrap."

परौ भुवोऽवज्ञाने

parau bhuvo'vajñāne

In the sense of disrespect, bhū preceded by pari optionally takes ghañ, giving paribhāvaḥ beside paribhavaḥ "insult."

एरच्

erac

In the abstract or non-agentive sense, an i/ī-final root takes the affix ac, giving cayaḥ "heap," jayaḥ "victory."

ॠदोरप्

ṝdorap

In the abstract or non-agentive sense, an ṛ-final or u/ū-final root takes the affix ap, giving karaḥ "hand, tax."

ग्रहवृदृनिश्चिगमश्च

grahavṛdṛniścigamaśca

Grah, vṛ, dṛ, ci (preceded by ni), and gam likewise take ap, giving grahaḥ, varaḥ, niścayaḥ "determination," gamaḥ.

उपसर्गेऽदः

upasarge'daḥ

With a preverb as upapada, ad ("to eat") takes ap, giving vighasaḥ, praghasaḥ "leftover food."

नौ ण च

nau ṇa ca

Ad preceded by ni takes either ṇa or ap, giving nyādaḥ beside nighasaḥ.

व्यधजपोरनुपसर्गे

vyadhajaporanupasarge

Without a preverb, vyadh and jap take ap, giving vyadhaḥ, japaḥ.

स्वनहसोर्वा

svanahasorvā

Without a preverb, svan and has optionally take ap, giving svanaḥ beside svānaḥ, hasaḥ beside hāsaḥ.

यमः समुपनिविषु

yamaḥ samupaniviṣu

Yam preceded by sam, upa, ni, or vi optionally takes ap, giving saṁyamaḥ beside saṁyāmaḥ.

नौ गदनदपठस्वनः

nau gadanadapaṭhasvanaḥ

Gad, nad, paṭh, and svan preceded by ni optionally take ap, giving nigadaḥ beside nigādaḥ.

क्वणः वीणायां च

kvaṇaḥ vīṇāyāṁ ca

Kvaṇ (with or without ni), in the sense "lute-sound," optionally takes ap, giving nikvaṇaḥ beside nikvāṇaḥ.

नित्यं पणः परिमाणे

nityaṁ paṇaḥ parimāṇe

In the sense of a counted bundle-measure, paṇ obligatorily takes ap, giving mūlakapaṇaḥ "a bundle of radishes."

मदोऽनुपसर्गे

mado'nupasarge

Without a preverb, mad takes ap, giving vidyāmadaḥ "pride of learning."

प्रमदसम्मदौ हर्षे

pramadasammadau harṣe

In the sense "joy," the forms pramadaḥ and sammadaḥ are specifically prescribed.

समुदोरजः पशुषु

samudorajaḥ paśuṣu

In an animal context, aj preceded by sam/ud takes ap, giving samajaḥ "a herd (driven together)."

अक्षेषु ग्लहः

akṣeṣu glahaḥ

In the context of dice-play, grah takes ap with r replaced by l, giving glahaḥ "the wagered stake."

प्रजने सर्तेः

prajane sarteḥ

In the sense of a first mating-approach, sṛ takes ap, giving upasaraḥ.

ह्वः सम्प्रसारणं च नि अभि उप विषु

hvaḥ samprasāraṇaṁ ca ni abhi upa viṣu

Hve ("to call") preceded by ni, abhi, upa, or vi takes ap along with saṁprasāraṇa (vocalisation), giving nihavaḥ, upahavaḥ.

आङि युद्धे

āṅi yuddhe

In the sense "battle," hve preceded by ā likewise takes ap with saṁprasāraṇa, giving āhavaḥ "battlefield."

निपानम् आहावः

nipānam āhāvaḥ

In the sense "watering-trough," hve preceded by ā takes ap with saṁprasāraṇa and specially prescribed vṛddhi, giving āhāvaḥ.

भावेऽनुपसर्गस्य

bhāve'nupasargasya

In the abstract sense, hve without a preverb takes ap with saṁprasāraṇa, giving havaḥ "a calling out."

हनश्च वधः

hanaśca vadhaḥ

In the abstract sense, without a preverb, han takes ap and is itself replaced by vadha, giving vadhaḥ "killing."

मूर्तौ घनः

mūrtau ghanaḥ

In the sense "solidity," han takes ap and is replaced by ghana, giving ghanaḥ "solid mass, cloud."

अन्तर्घनो देशे

antarghano deśe

In naming a region, han preceded by antar takes ap with the ghana substitute, giving antarghanaḥ (a place-name).

अगार एकदेशे प्रघणप्रघाणौ च

agāra ekadeśe praghaṇapraghāṇau ca

In the sense of a part of a house (the entrance-platform), han preceded by pra takes either ap or ghañ (with ghana), giving praghaṇaḥ beside praghāṇaḥ.

उद्घनोऽत्याधानम्

udghano'tyādhānam

In the sense "a carpenter's chopping-block," the form udghanaḥ (from han preceded by ud) is specifically prescribed.

अपघनोऽङ्गम्

apaghano'ṅgam

In the sense of a limb (hand or foot specifically), the form apaghanaḥ (from han preceded by apa) is specifically prescribed.

करणेऽयो विद्रुषु

karaṇe'yo vidruṣu

In the instrumental sense, with ayas ("iron"), vi, or dru as upapada, han takes ap with the ghana substitute, giving vighanaḥ "hammer," drughanaḥ "wooden mallet."

स्तम्बे क च

stambe ka ca

With stamba ("thicket") as upapada, in the instrumental sense, han takes either ka or ap, giving stambaghnaḥ beside stambaghanaḥ.

परौ घः

parau ghaḥ

Han preceded by pari takes ap in the instrumental sense, replaced by gha, giving parighaḥ "an iron bar, mace."

उपघ्न आश्रये

upaghna āśraye

In the sense "leaning against for support," han preceded by upa takes ap with specially prescribed loss of its penultimate sound, giving parvatopaghnaḥ "built against a mountainside."

सङ्घोद्घौ गणप्रशंसयोः

saṅghodghau gaṇapraśaṁsayoḥ

In the sense "collection," han preceded by sam takes ap (giving saṅghaḥ "assembly"); in the sense "praise," han preceded by ud likewise takes ap (giving udghaḥ), both with elision and the gha substitute.

निघो नीमितम्

nigho nīmitam

In the sense "of level/uniform height," han preceded by ni takes ap similarly, giving nighāḥ vṛkṣāḥ "trees of matching height."

डु इतोऽः क्त्रिः

ḍu ito'ḥ ktriḥ

A root marked with indicatory ḍu takes the affix ktri (realized as -tri) in the abstract or non-agentive sense.

ट्वितोऽथुच्

ṭvito'thuc

A root marked with indicatory ṭu takes the affix athuc in the same senses, giving vepathuḥ "trembling," kṣavathuḥ "sneezing."

यजयाचयतविच्छप्रच्छरक्षो नङ्

yajayācayatavicchapraccharakṣo naṅ

In the abstract or non-agentive sense, these six roots — yaj, yāc, yat, vicch, pracch, rakṣ — take the affix naṅ, giving yajñaḥ "sacrifice," yācñā "begging," yatnaḥ "effort," praśnaḥ "question."

स्वपो नन्

svapo nan

In the abstract or non-agentive sense, svap ("to sleep") takes the affix nan, giving svapnaḥ "sleep, dream."

उपसर्गे घोः किः

upasarge ghoḥ kiḥ

With a preverb as upapada, ghu-class roots (like dā/dhā) take the affix ki in the abstract or non-agentive sense, giving vidhiḥ "rule," nidhiḥ "treasure."

कर्मण्यधिकरणे च

karmaṇyadhikaraṇe ca

With an object as upapada, ghu-class roots likewise take ki in the locative sense, giving jaladhiḥ "ocean, receptacle of water."

स्त्रियां क्तिन्

striyāṁ ktin

In the feminine, in the abstract or non-agentive sense, a root takes the affix ktin, giving kṛtiḥ "action," bhūtiḥ "prosperity."

स्थागापापचां भावे

sthāgāpāpacāṁ bhāve

In the abstract sense, sthā, gā, pā, and pac take ktin in the feminine, giving prasthitiḥ, paktiḥ "cooking."

मन्त्रे वृषेषपचमनविदभूवीरा उदात्तः

mantre vṛṣeṣapacamanavidabhūvīrā udāttaḥ

In mantra-texts, vṛṣ, iṣ, pac, man, vid, bhū, vī, and rā take ktin in the feminine abstract sense, with the affix itself acutely accented, giving vṛṣṭiḥ "rain," iṣṭiḥ "wish," bhūtiḥ.

ऊतियूतिजूतिसातिहेतिकीर्तयश्च

ūtiyūtijūtisātihetikīrtayaśca

The forms ūtiḥ, yūtiḥ, jūtiḥ, sātiḥ, hetiḥ, and kīrtiḥ are specifically prescribed.

व्रजयजोर्भावे क्यप्

vrajayajorbhāve kyap

In the abstract sense, vraj and yaj take the acutely-accented affix kyap in the feminine, giving vrajyā "going," ijyā "sacrificing."

संज्ञायां समजनिषदनिपतमनविदषुञ्शीङ्भृञ् इणः

saṁjñāyāṁ samajaniṣadanipatamanavidaṣuñśīṅbhṛñ iṇaḥ

In proper-name formation, aj (preceded by sam), sad/pat (preceded by ni), man, vid, ṣu, śī, bhṛ, and i take the acutely-accented kyap in the feminine, giving samajyā "assembly," śayyā "bed."

कृञः श च

kṛñaḥ śa ca

Kṛ takes both kyap and śa in the feminine, giving kṛtyā and kriyā "action."

इच्छा

icchā

The form icchā ("desire") is specifically prescribed, alongside related śa+yak formations like paricaryā "service," mṛgayā "hunting."

अप्रत्ययात्

apratyayāt

In the feminine abstract/non-agentive sense, a root already extended by a prior (sanādi) affix takes the affix a, giving cikīrṣā "the desire to do."

गुरोश्च हलः

gurośca halaḥ

A heavy-syllabled, consonant-final root likewise takes a in this feminine sense, giving īhā "endeavour," ūhā.

षित्भिदादिभ्योऽङ्

ṣitbhidādibhyo'ṅ

Roots with indicatory ṣ, and bhid and others, take the affix aṅ in the feminine, giving trapā "shyness," bhidā "split," vidā.

चिन्तिपूजिकथिकुम्बिचर्चश्च

cintipūjikathikumbicarcaśca

Cint, pūj, kath, kumb, and carc likewise take aṅ in the feminine, giving cintā "worry," pūjā "worship," kathā "story," carcā "discussion."

आतश्चोपसर्गे

ātaścopasarge

An ā-final root preceded by a preverb likewise takes aṅ in the feminine, giving saṁjñā "name," pradā.

ण्यासस्रन्थो युच्

ṇyāsasrantho yuc

A causative stem, and also ās and srantha, take the affix yuc in the feminine, giving kāraṇā, āsanā "sitting."

रोगाख्यायां ण्वुल् बहुलम्

rogākhyāyāṁ ṇvul bahulam

In naming a disease, a root inconsistently (bahulam) takes ṇvul, giving pravāhikā "dysentery."

संज्ञायाम्

saṁjñāyām

In naming (especially named games), a root takes ṇvul, giving śālabhañjikā (a particular game/festival).

विभाषाख्यानपरिप्रश्नयोरिञ् च

vibhāṣākhyānaparipraśnayoriñ ca

In asking or narrating an action, ṇvul and iñ are optional, giving forms like kāṁ kārikām akārṣīḥ "what did you do?"

पर्यायार्हणोत्पत्तिषु ण्वुच्

paryāyārhaṇotpattiṣu ṇvuc

In the senses "turn," "worthiness," "debt," and "birth," a root takes ṇvuc, giving bhavataḥ śāyikā "your turn to sleep."

आक्रोशे नञ्यनिः

ākrośe nañyaniḥ

In a curse, with the negative particle nañ as upapada, a root takes the affix ani, giving akaraṇiḥ (used in imprecations).

कृत्यल्युटो बहुलम्

kṛtyalyuṭo bahulam

Kṛtya-affixes and lyuṭ are also inconsistently used outside their specifically stated senses, giving forms like snānīyam "that for bathing."

नपुंसके भावे क्तः

napuṁsake bhāve ktaḥ

In the neuter, in the abstract sense, a root takes kta, giving hasitam "laughing," suptam "sleeping."

ल्युट् च

lyuṭ ca

In the neuter abstract sense, lyuṭ is likewise used, giving hasanam "laughing" (alongside hasitam).

कर्मणि च येन संस्पृशात् कर्तुः शरीरसुखम्

karmaṇi ca yena saṁspṛśāt kartuḥ śarīrasukham

With an object whose contact brings bodily pleasure to the agent as upapada, lyuṭ (neuter) expresses the abstract sense, e.g. odanabhojanaṁ sukham "eating rice is pleasant."

करणाधिकरणयोश्च

karaṇādhikaraṇayośca

Lyuṭ is likewise used in the instrumental and locative senses, e.g. idhmapravraścanaḥ "an implement for splitting firewood."

पुंसि संज्ञायां घः प्रायेण

puṁsi saṁjñāyāṁ ghaḥ prāyeṇa

In the instrumental/locative sense, for a masculine proper/common noun, a root usually takes the affix gha, giving ākaraḥ "mine, source."

गोचरसंचरवहव्रजव्यजापणनिगमाश्च

gocarasaṁcaravahavrajavyajāpaṇanigamāśca

In this same sense, the forms gocaraḥ "pasture," saṁcaraḥ, vahaḥ "vehicle," vrajaḥ, vyajaḥ "fan," āpaṇaḥ "market," and nigamaḥ "scripture" are specifically prescribed.

अवे तॄस्त्रोर्घञ्

ave tṝstrorghañ

Preceded by ava, tṝ and stṝ take ghañ in the instrumental/locative masculine sense, giving avatāraḥ "descent, incarnation."

हलश्च

halaśca

A consonant-final root likewise takes ghañ in this masculine instrumental/locative sense, giving rāmaḥ "delight (locative of ram)," lekhaḥ "writing."

अध्यायन्यायोद्यावसंहाराधारावायाश्च

adhyāyanyāyodyāvasaṁhārādhārāvāyāśca

In the same sense, the forms adhyāyaḥ "chapter," nyāyaḥ "rule/logic," udyāvaḥ, saṁhāraḥ "destruction," ādhāraḥ "support," and āvāyaḥ are specifically prescribed.

उदङ्कोऽनुदके

udaṅko'nudake

In the sense "container for a liquid other than water," the form udaṅkaḥ is prescribed, e.g. tailodaṅkaḥ "an oil-skin."

जालम् आनायः

jālam ānāyaḥ

In the sense "net," the form ānāyaḥ is prescribed, e.g. ānāyo matsyānām "a fishing net."

खनो घ च

khano gha ca

In the instrumental/locative sense, khan takes either gha or ghañ, giving ākhanaḥ beside ākhānaḥ.

ईषद्दुस्सुषु कृच्छ्राकृच्छ्रार्थेषु खल्

īṣaddussuṣu kṛcchrākṛcchrārtheṣu khal

With īṣat, dus, or su as upapada, in the sense of difficulty or ease, a root takes khal, giving duṣkaraḥ "hard to do."

कर्तृकर्मणोश्च भूकृञोः

kartṛkarmaṇośca bhūkṛñoḥ

With an agent as upapada, bhū (and with an object as upapada, kṛ) takes khal in this "easy/hard" sense, giving īṣadāḍhyambhavaḥ "one easily becoming rich."

आतो युच्

āto yuc

With dus, īṣat, or su as upapada, in the "easy/hard" sense, an ā-final root takes yuc, giving īṣatpānaḥ "easy to drink."

छन्दसि गत्यर्थेभ्यः

chandasi gatyarthebhyaḥ

In Vedic usage, motion-verbs likewise take yuc with īṣat etc. as upapada.

अन्येभ्योऽपि दृश्यते

anyebhyo'pi dṛśyate

In Vedic usage, yuc is also attested with non-motion roots in this sense, e.g. sudohanā, suvedanā.

वर्तमानसामीप्ये वर्तमानवद्वा

vartamānasāmīpye vartamānavadvā

For an event just before or just after the present moment, laṭ (present) is optionally used as if it were happening now, e.g. ayam āgacchāmi "I'm just arriving."

आशंसायां भूतवच्च

āśaṁsāyāṁ bhūtavacca

In expressing a hoped-for future event, past- or present-tense forms are optionally used instead, e.g. āgataḥ or āgacchati for an anticipated arrival.

क्षिप्रवचने लृट्

kṣipravacane lṛṭ

With a "swiftly" word as upapada, in the sense of hoped-for speed, lṛṭ (future) is used, e.g. kṣipram āgamiṣyati "will come quickly."

आशंसावचने लिङ्

āśaṁsāvacane liṅ

With a word expressing hope/expectation as upapada, liṅ is used, e.g. āgacchet "would that he come."

नानद्यतनवत्क्रियाप्रबन्धसामीप्ययोः

nānadyatanavatkriyāprabandhasāmīpyayoḥ

In expressing continuous/ongoing action or immediate proximity, the not-today-past restriction does not apply, e.g. yāvajjīvaṁ dadāt "gave as long as he lived."

भविष्यति मर्यादावचनेऽवरस्मिन्

bhaviṣyati maryādāvacane'varasmin

In the future, when specifying the "hither" limit of a boundary, the not-today restriction does not apply, e.g. specifying meals to be eaten before reaching a place.

कालविभागे चानहोरात्राणाम्

kālavibhāge cānahorātrāṇām

For a time-boundary that is not a day/night division, the not-today restriction likewise does not apply, e.g. specifying study before a certain lunar-month date.

परस्मिन् विभाषा

parasmin vibhāṣā

When specifying the "far side" of a time-boundary, the restriction optionally applies, giving adhyeṣyāmahe beside adhyetāsmahe.

लिङ्निमित्ते लृङ् क्रियातिपत्तौ

liṅnimitte lṛṅ kriyātipattau

When a hypothetical (liṅ-conditioned) situation implies the action's non-fulfilment, lṛṅ (conditional) is used, e.g. "had he bowed, he would have prospered" (but did not).

भूते च

bhūte ca

Even when the hypothetical condition is set in the past, if the action failed to occur, lṛṅ is used, e.g. "had he been seen, he would have been fed" (but was not).

वा आ उताप्योः

vā ā utāpyoḥ

Up through 3.3.152, wherever another lakāra is taught for a liṅ-conditioned situation, lṛṅ may optionally be understood as well, when the past action failed to occur.

गर्हायां लट् अपिजात्वोः

garhāyāṁ laṭ apijātvoḥ

With api or jātu as upapada, in a reproachful sense, laṭ is used regardless of actual time, e.g. api māṁsaṁ khādati "does he really eat meat?!" (scornfully).

विभाषा कथमि लिङ् च

vibhāṣā kathami liṅ ca

With katham ("how") as upapada, in a reproachful sense, liṅ is optionally used (alongside laṭ), e.g. kathaṁ bhavān krośet "how could you scold like that!"

किंवृत्ते लिङ्लृटौ

kiṁvṛtte liṅlṛṭau

With a kim-derived word as upapada, in a reproachful sense, liṅ and lṛṭ are used, e.g. ko nāma vidyāṁ nindet "who indeed would disparage learning!"

अनवकल्प्त्यमर्षयोरकिंवृत्तेऽपि

anavakalptyamarṣayorakiṁvṛtte'pi

In expressing disbelief or intolerance, liṅ and lṛṭ are used even without a kim-derived upapada, e.g. "I cannot believe you would eat meat."

किंकिलास्त्यर्थेषु लृट्

kiṁkilāstyartheṣu lṛṭ

With kiṁkila, or an "is/exists"-type word, as upapada, in this disbelief/intolerance sense, lṛṭ is used.

जातुयदोर्लिङ्

jātuyadorliṅ

With jātu or yat as upapada, in this same sense, liṅ is used, e.g. "I cannot believe you would ever abandon dharma."

यच्चयत्रयोः

yaccayatrayoḥ

With yacca or yatra as upapada, liṅ is likewise used in this disbelief/intolerance sense.

गर्हायां च

garhāyāṁ ca

With yacca/yatra as upapada, liṅ is likewise used in a reproachful sense, e.g. "that you eat meat — how shameful!"

चित्रीकरणे च

citrīkaraṇe ca

With yacca/yatra as upapada, liṅ is likewise used to express astonishment, e.g. "that you should disparage sacred learning — how astonishing!"

शेषे लृट् अयदौ

śeṣe lṛṭ ayadau

In the remaining cases, without yacca/yatra, lṛṭ is used to express astonishment, e.g. "a blind man will walk fast down the road — how astonishing!"

उताप्योः समर्थयोः लिङ्

utāpyoḥ samarthayoḥ liṅ

With the synonymous particles uta or api as upapada, liṅ is used, e.g. uta kuryāt, api kuryāt.

कामप्रवेदनेऽकच्चिति

kāmapravedane'kacciti

With a word other than kaccit as upapada, in expressing one's own wish, liṅ is used, e.g. kāmo me bhuñjīta bhavān "my wish is that you dine."

सम्भावनेऽलमिति चेत् सिद्धाप्रयोगे

sambhāvane'lamiti cet siddhāprayoge

In a hypothetical sense — where the force of alam ("enough to...") is understood without the word itself being used — liṅ is still used, e.g. "he could split a mountain with his head."

विभाषा धातौ सम्भावनावचनेऽयदि

vibhāṣā dhātau sambhāvanāvacane'yadi

With a "supposing"-type root as upapada, without yat, liṅ is optionally used for a hypothesis, giving bhokṣyate bhavān beside bhuñjīta bhavān.

हेतुहेतुमतोर्लिङ्

hetuhetumatorliṅ

In expressing a cause-effect relationship, liṅ is used, e.g. "if he goes by the right, the cart won't overturn."

इच्छार्थेषु लिङ्लोटौ

icchārtheṣu liṅloṭau

With a "wishing"-verb as upapada, liṅ or loṭ is used, e.g. icchāmi bhuñjīta bhavān "I wish you would dine."

समानकर्तृकेषु तुमुन्

samānakartṛkeṣu tumun

When the wisher and the doer are the same person, tumun is used, e.g. bhoktum icchati "wishes to eat."

लिङ् च

liṅ ca

In the same same-agent wishing construction, liṅ is also used, e.g. "he wishes 'may I eat.'"

इच्छार्थेभ्यो विभाषा वर्तमाने

icchārthebhyo vibhāṣā vartamāne

With verbs of wishing, liṅ is optionally used for the present, giving icchet beside icchati.

विधिनिमन्त्रणामन्त्रणाधीष्टसम्प्रश्नप्रार्थनेषु लिङ्

vidhinimantraṇāmantraṇādhīṣṭasampraśnaprārthaneṣu liṅ

In six senses — injunction, invitation, summons, respectful request, deferential inquiry, and entreaty — liṅ is used, e.g. odanaṁ pacet "let him cook the rice."

लोट् च

loṭ ca

In the same six senses, loṭ is likewise used, e.g. bhavato maṅgalaṁ bhavatu "may you be blessed."

प्रैषातिसर्गप्राप्तकालेषु कृत्याश्च

praiṣātisargaprāptakāleṣu kṛtyāśca

In the senses of command, permission, and "the right time has come," kṛtya-affixes (and loṭ) are also used, e.g. kaṭaḥ kartavyaḥ "a mat ought to be made."

लिङ् च ऊर्ध्वमौहूर्तिके

liṅ ca ūrdhvamauhūrtike

When the command/permission concerns a time beyond the next muhūrta, liṅ (with the appropriate kṛtya) is also used, e.g. "after a muhūrta, you should make the mat."

स्मे लोट्

sme loṭ

With sma as upapada, in this "beyond a muhūrta" sense, loṭ is used, e.g. "after a while, may you make the mat."

अधीष्टे च

adhīṣṭe ca

With sma as upapada, in a respectful-request sense too, loṭ is used, e.g. "I earnestly request that you teach the boy."

कालसमयवेलासु तुमुन्

kālasamayavelāsu tumun

With kāla, samaya, or velā ("time") as upapada, tumun is used, e.g. bhoktuṁ kālaḥ "it is time to eat."

लिङ् यदि

liṅ yadi

With yat accompanying kāla/samaya/velā, liṅ is used instead, e.g. kālo yad bhuñjīta bhavān.

अर्हे कृत्यतृचश्च

arhe kṛtyatṛcaśca

In the sense of deserving/being fit, kṛtya-affixes and tṛc (and liṅ) are used, e.g. paṭhitavyā vidyā "learning fit to be studied."

आवश्यकाधमर्ण्ययोर्णिनिः

āvaśyakādhamarṇyayorṇiniḥ

In the senses "necessity" and "being a debtor," a root takes ṇini in the agentive sense, giving avaśyaṅkārī "one bound to do it," śatadāyī "one owing a hundred."

कृत्याश्च

kṛtyāśca

In the same "necessity/debt" sense, kṛtya-affixes are likewise used, e.g. avaśyaṁ kaṭaḥ kartavyaḥ, śataṁ dātavyam.

शकि लिङ् च

śaki liṅ ca

In the sense of being possible/capable, liṅ and kṛtya-affixes are used, e.g. śatruṁ jayet "he could conquer the foe," śatrur jetavyaḥ.

आशिषि लिङ्लोटौ

āśiṣi liṅloṭau

In a benedictory sense, liṅ or loṭ is used, e.g. putraṁ te bhavatu "may you have a son."

क्तिच् क्तौ च संज्ञायाम्

ktic ktau ca saṁjñāyām

In this same benedictory sense, when a proper name results, ktic and kta are used, e.g. bhūtiḥ, devadattaḥ "given by the gods."

माङि लुङ्

māṅi luṅ

With māṅ (the prohibitive particle) as upapada, luṅ is used even though no past time is meant, e.g. klaibyaṁ mā gamaḥ "do not resort to cowardice."

स्म उत्तरे लङ् च

sma uttare laṅ ca

With māṅ followed by sma as upapada, laṅ is used as well (optionally with luṅ), e.g. mā sma bhavat "let it not be so." This closes Pāda 3 of Adhyāya Three.

धातुसम्बन्धे प्रत्ययाः

dhātusambandhe pratyayāḥ

A governing rule: through the end of this Book, the affixes taught relate to the root's meaning as such, independent of tense/time, e.g. agniṣṭomayājī asya putro janitā "the one who performed the sacrifice — his son is to be born."

क्रियासमभिहारे लोट्, लोटो हिस्वौ वा च तध्वमोः

kriyāsamabhihāre loṭ, loṭo hisvau vā ca tadhvamoḥ

In expressing repeated action, loṭ is used to relate to the root's sense; loṭ is then replaced by hi/tu-type endings, and the t/dhvam endings are optionally so replaced too.

समुच्चये अन्यतरस्याम्

samuccaye anyatarasyām

In expressing an accumulation of actions, loṭ is optionally used, e.g. bhrāṣṭamaṭa, maṭhamaṭa "goes here, goes there" (one place after another).

यथाविधि अनुप्रयोगः पूर्वस्मिन्

yathāvidhi anuprayogaḥ pūrvasmin

The same root that took loṭ (per 3.4.2) is repeated as an auxiliary in its proper form, e.g. lunīhi lunīhīti lunāti "he cuts saying 'cut, cut.'"

समुच्चये सामान्यवचनस्य

samuccaye sāmānyavacanasya

In expressing accumulation, a general verb is used as auxiliary to summarize a set of specific actions, e.g. "eats rice, drinks gruel..." all summarized under abhyavaharati "consumes."

छन्दसि लुङ्लङ्लिटः

chandasi luṅlaṅliṭaḥ

In Vedic usage, luṅ, laṅ, and liṭ are all used interchangeably to relate to the root's sense, without regard to actual tense.

लिङ् अर्थे लेट्

liṅ arthe leṭ

In Vedic usage, leṭ optionally expresses the sense of liṅ, e.g. "may we not fall into hell through crookedness."

उपसंवाद आशङ्कयोश्च

upasaṁvāda āśaṅkayośca

In Vedic usage, leṭ likewise expresses a stipulated condition or an apprehension.

तुमर्थे सेसेनसेऽसेङ्क्सेकसेन्अध्यैअध्यैन्कध्यैकध्यैन्शध्यैशध्यैन्तवैतवेङ्तवेनः

tumarthe sesenase'seṅksekasenadhyaiadhyainkadhyaikadhyainśadhyaiśadhyaintavaitaveṅtavenaḥ

In Vedic usage, in place of tumun ("in order to"), fourteen rare affixes are used — se, senc, ase, asenc, kse, ksenc, adhyai, adhyainc, kadhyai, kadhyainc, śadhyai, śadhyainc, tavai, tavenc — e.g. vakṣe "to carry," pātavai "to drink."

प्रयै रोहिष्यै अव्यथिष्यै

prayai rohiṣyai avyathiṣyai

In Vedic usage, in the same "in order to" sense, the forms prayai, rohiṣyai, and avyathiṣyai are specifically prescribed.

दृशे विख्ये च

dṛśe vikhye ca

In Vedic usage, dṛśe ("to see") and vikhye ("to be renowned") are likewise prescribed in this sense.

शकि णमुल्कमुलौ

śaki ṇamulkamulau

With śak as upapada, in Vedic usage, ṇamul and kamul express "in order to," giving vibhājam.

ईश्वरे तोसुन्कसुनौ

īśvare tosunkasunau

With īśvara ("capable of") as upapada, in Vedic usage, tosun and kasun express "in order to," giving abhicaritoḥ, vilikhaḥ.

कृत्यार्थे तवैकेन्केन्यत्वनः

kṛtyārthe tavaikenkenyatvanaḥ

In the abstract/passive sense, in Vedic usage, tavai, kenc, kenya, and tvan replace the kṛtya-affixes, giving forms like navagāhe, kartvaṁ haviḥ "the oblation to be made."

अवचक्षे च

avacakṣe ca

Preceded by ava, cakṣ ("to declare") likewise takes the specially prescribed affix eś in Vedic usage, giving avacakṣe.

भावलक्षणे स्थेण्कृवदिचरिहुतमिजनिभ्यस्तोसुन्

bhāvalakṣaṇe stheṇkṛvadicarihutamijanibhyastosun

In indicating the onset of an action, sthā, i, kṛ, vad, car, hu, tam, and jan take tosun ("in order to") in Vedic usage, giving ā saṁsthātoḥ "until settling."

सृपितृदोः कसुन्

sṛpitṛdoḥ kasun

In Vedic usage, sṛp and tṛd take kasun in the same sense, giving visṛpaḥ, ātṛdaḥ.

अलं खल्वोः प्रतिषेधयोः प्राचां क्त्वा

alaṁ khalvoḥ pratiṣedhayoḥ prācāṁ ktvā

With the prohibitive alam or khalu as upapada, according to earlier teachers, a root optionally takes ktvā, e.g. alaṁ dattvā "don't (bother to) give!"

उदीचां माङो व्यतीहारे

udīcāṁ māṅo vyatīhāre

In the sense of reciprocal exchange, according to northern teachers, māṅ takes ktvā, e.g. apamitya yācate.

परावरयोगे च

parāvarayoge ca

In expressing "before the far point" or "after the near point," ktvā is likewise used, e.g. "before reaching the river stands the mountain."

समानकर्तृकयोः पूर्वकाले

samānakartṛkayoḥ pūrvakāle

Between two actions with the same agent, the earlier one takes ktvā, e.g. bhuktvā vrajati "having eaten, he goes."

आभीक्ष्ण्ये णमुल् च

ābhīkṣṇye ṇamul ca

In expressing repetition/distributiveness, a nominal is reduplicated (and ṇamul is likewise used for a preceding action), e.g. grāmo grāmo ramaṇīyaḥ "every single village is delightful."

न यदि अणाकाङ्क्षे

na yadi aṇākāṅkṣe

When the agent needs no further qualification, with yat present, ktvā/ṇamul are NOT used for the "prior action" sense, e.g. yad ayaṁ bhuṅkte tataḥ paṭhati "when he eats, then he reads" (plain tenses used instead).

विभाषाऽग्रेप्रथमपूर्वेषु

vibhāṣā'greprathamapūrveṣu

With agre, prathama, or pūrva as upapada, ktvā/ṇamul are optionally used for the prior action, e.g. agre bhuktvā vrajati "goes after eating first."

कर्मण्याक्रोशे कृञः खमुञ्

karmaṇyākrośe kṛñaḥ khamuñ

With an object as upapada, kṛ (as the prior action) takes khamuñ in a reproachful sense, e.g. coraṅkāram ākrośati "shouts 'thief!'"

स्वादुमि णमुल्

svādumi ṇamul

With a "tasty"-word as upapada, kṛ (as prior action) takes ṇamul, e.g. svāduṅkāraṁ bhuṅkte "eats relishing the taste."

अन्यथैवंकथमित्थंसु सिद्धाप्रयोगश्चेत्

anyathaivaṁkathamitthaṁsu siddhāprayogaścet

With anyathā, evam, katham, or ittham as upapada, even when the meaning is already complete without a verb, kṛ still takes ṇamul, e.g. anyathākāram (a redundant but grammatically regular usage).

यथातथयोरसूयाप्रतिवचने

yathātathayorasūyāprativacane

With yathā/tathā as upapada, in a spiteful retort, kṛ takes ṇamul, e.g. yathākāram ahaṁ bhokṣye "however I please, I shall eat" (retort to envy).

कर्मणि दृशिविदोः साकल्ये

karmaṇi dṛśividoḥ sākalye

With an object as upapada, in a sense of totality, dṛś and vid take ṇamul, e.g. yavanadarśanaṁ hanti "kills every Greek he sees."

यावति विन्दजीवोः

yāvati vindajīvoḥ

With yāvat as upapada, vid ("to find/get") and jīv ("to live") take ṇamul, e.g. yāvadvedaṁ bhojayati "feeds as much as he gets," yāvajjīvam "for as long as one lives."

चर्मोदरयोः पूरेः

carmodarayoḥ pūreḥ

With carman ("hide") or udara ("belly") as object, pūr ("to fill") takes ṇamul, e.g. carmapūram "covering the whole hide," udarapūram "filling the belly."

वर्षप्रमाणे ऊल्लोपश्चास्यान्यतरस्याम्

varṣapramāṇe ūllopaścāsyānyatarasyām

With an object as upapada, in expressing the extent of rainfall, pūr takes ṇamul with optional loss of its ū, giving goṣpadapūram beside goṣpadapuram "rain enough to fill a hoofprint."

चेले क्नोपेः

cele knopeḥ

With a cloth-word as object, knopi ("to moisten") takes ṇamul in the "extent of rain" sense, e.g. celaknopam "rain enough to wet one's clothes."

निमूलसमूलयोः कषः

nimūlasamūlayoḥ kaṣaḥ

With nirmūla or samūla as object, kaṣ ("to cut") takes ṇamul, giving nirmūlakāṣam "cutting sparing the root," samūlakāṣam "cutting root and all."

शुष्कचूर्णरूक्षेषु पिषः

śuṣkacūrṇarūkṣeṣu piṣaḥ

With śuṣka, cūrṇa, or rūkṣa as object, piṣ ("to grind") takes ṇamul, giving śuṣkapeṣam "grinding the dry," cūrṇapeṣam "grinding to powder."

समूलाकृतजीवेषु हन्कृग्रहः

samūlākṛtajīveṣu hankṛgrahaḥ

With samūla, akṛta, or jīva as object, han, kṛ, and grah respectively take ṇamul, giving samūlaghātam "striking root and all," jīvagrāham "capturing alive."

करणे हनः

karaṇe hanaḥ

With an instrument as upapada, han takes ṇamul, e.g. pāṇyupaghātam "striking with the hand."

स्नेहने पिषः

snehane piṣaḥ

With a "moistening" instrument as upapada, piṣ takes ṇamul, e.g. udapeṣam "grinding with water," tailapeṣam "grinding with oil."

हस्ते वर्तिग्रहोः

haste vartigrahoḥ

With hasta ("hand") as instrument-upapada, the causative of vṛt and grah take ṇamul, e.g. hastavartam "rolling by hand," hastagrāham "grasping by hand."

स्वे पुषः

sve puṣaḥ

With sva ("one's own") as instrument-upapada, puṣ ("to nourish") takes ṇamul, e.g. svapoṣam "supporting by one's own means."

अधिकरणे बन्धः

adhikaraṇe bandhaḥ

With a locative-sense word as upapada, bandh takes ṇamul, e.g. cakrabandham "binding into a wheel-shape."

संज्ञायाम्

saṁjñāyām

In naming (specific binding-styles), bandh likewise takes ṇamul, giving krauñcabandham, mayūrikābandham.

कर्त्रोर्जीवपुरुषयोर्नशिवहोः

kartrorjīvapuruṣayornaśivahoḥ

With jīva or puruṣa as agent-upapada, naś and vah respectively take ṇamul, giving jīvanāśam, puruṣavāham.

ऊर्ध्वे शुषिपूरोः

ūrdhve śuṣipūroḥ

With ūrdhva ("upward") as agent-upapada, śuṣ and pūr take ṇamul, giving ūrdhvaśoṣam "drying from the top," ūrdhvapūram "filling to the brim."

उपमाने कर्मणि च

upamāne karmaṇi ca

With a simile-word as object or agent as upapada, ṇamul is likewise used, e.g. mātṛdhāyaṁ dhayati "suckles as at his mother's breast," siṁhagarjaṁ garjati "roars like a lion."

कषादिषु यथाविध्यनुप्रयोगः

kaṣādiṣu yathāvidhyanuprayogaḥ

From 3.4.34 (kaṣ) onward, each root for which ṇamul was taught is likewise used as its own auxiliary verb, as appropriate.

उपदंशस्तृतीयायाम्

upadaṁśastṛtīyāyām

With an instrumental-case word as upapada, daṁś preceded by upa takes ṇamul, e.g. mūlakopadaṁśam "eating with radish as a relish."

हिंसार्थानां च समानकर्मकाणाम्

hiṁsārthānāṁ ca samānakarmakāṇām

With an instrumental-case word as upapada, roots of harming (sharing the same object) likewise take ṇamul, e.g. daṇḍopaghātam "striking with a stick."

सप्तम्यां चोपपीडरुधकर्षः

saptamyāṁ copapīḍarudhakarṣaḥ

With a locative- or instrumental-case word as upapada, pīḍ, rudh, and kaṣ (preceded by upa) take ṇamul, e.g. pārśvopapīḍam "pressing against the side."

समासत्तौ

samāsattau

In the sense of close contact, a locative- or instrumental-case word as upapada triggers ṇamul, e.g. keśagrāham "grappling by the hair."

प्रमाणे च

pramāṇe ca

In expressing a measured interval, ṇamul is likewise used, e.g. dvyaṅgulotkarṣam "leaving a two-finger gap."

अपादाने परीप्सायाम्

apādāne parīpsāyām

With an ablative-sense word as upapada, in expressing an eager immediate desire, ṇamul is used, e.g. śayyotthāyam "the moment one rises from bed."

द्वितीयायां च

dvitīyāyāṁ ca

With an accusative-case word as upapada too, ṇamul expresses this eager immediacy, e.g. yaṣṭigrāham "snatching up a staff."

स्वाङ्गेऽध्रुवे

svāṅge'dhruve

With an accusative body-part word (one whose removal is not fatal) as upapada, ṇamul is used, e.g. akṣinikāṇam "winking an eye."

परिक्लिश्यमाने च

parikliśyamāne ca

With an accusative body-part word denoting the part being strained/distressed as upapada, ṇamul is likewise used, e.g. uraḥpeṣam "straining the chest."

विशिपतिपदिस्कन्दां व्याप्यमानासेव्यमानयोः

viśipatipadiskandāṁ vyāpyamānāsevyamānayoḥ

With an accusative-case word as upapada, viś, pat, pad, and skand take ṇamul in the sense of thorough pervasion or continuous resort, e.g. gehānupraveśam "entering house after house."

अस्यतितृषोः क्रियान्तरे कालेषु

asyatitṛṣoḥ kriyāntare kāleṣu

With a time-word as upapada, in the sense of an interval between actions, as and tṛṣ take ṇamul, e.g. dvyahātyāsam "at a gap of two days."

नाम्न्यादिशिग्रहोः

nāmnyādiśigrahoḥ

With the accusative nāma as upapada, diś and grah (preceded by ā) take ṇamul, giving nāmādeśam beside nāmagrāham "calling by name."

अव्यये अयथाभिप्रेताख्याने कृञः क्त्वाणमुलौ

avyaye ayathābhipretākhyāne kṛñaḥ ktvāṇamulau

With an indeclinable as upapada, in an ironic statement (contrary to what was actually meant), kṛ takes ktvā or ṇamul, e.g. nīcaiḥ kṛtvā "having (ironically) done it lowly."

तिर्यचि अपवर्गे

tiryaci apavarge

With tiryak as upapada, in the sense of finishing a task completely, kṛ takes ktvā or ṇamul, e.g. tiryakkṛtvā "having finished it all off."

स्वाङ्गे तस्प्रत्यये कृभ्वोः

svāṅge taspratyaye kṛbhvoḥ

With a tas-suffixed body-part word as upapada, kṛ and bhū take ktvā or ṇamul, e.g. mukhataḥ kṛtvā "having turned to face."

नाधार्थप्रत्यये च्व्यर्थे

nādhārthapratyaye cvyarthe

With a word carrying the "become (what it wasn't)" (cvi) sense (via nā, dhā, or similar), kṛ and bhū take ktvā or ṇamul, e.g. nānākṛtya "having made separate."

तूष्णीमि भुवः

tūṣṇīmi bhuvaḥ

With tūṣṇīm ("silently") as upapada, bhū takes ktvā or ṇamul, e.g. tūṣṇīmbhūya gataḥ "went away in silence."

अन्वचि आनुलोम्ये

anvaci ānulomye

With anvak as upapada, in the sense of conforming/compliance, bhū takes ktvā or ṇamul, e.g. anvagbhūya "having become compliant."

शकधृषज्ञाग्लाघटरभलभक्रमसहार्हास्त्यर्थेषु तुमुन्

śakadhṛṣajñāglāghaṭarabhalabhakramasahārhāstyartheṣu tumun

With śak, dhṛṣ, jñā, glā, ghaṭ, rabh, labh, kram, sah, arh, or an "is/exists"-word as upapada, a root takes tumun, e.g. śaknoti bhoktum "is able to eat."

पर्याप्तिवचनेष्वलमर्थेषु

paryāptivacaneṣvalamartheṣu

With a word meaning "sufficient/capable" (alam-type) as upapada, a root takes tumun, e.g. paryāpto bhoktum "quite capable of eating."

कर्तरि कृत्

kartari kṛt

Kṛt-affixes generally denote the agent, unless a specific rule assigns another sense.

भव्यगेयप्रवचनीयोपस्थानीयजन्याप्लाव्यापात्या वा

bhavyageyapravacanīyopasthānīyajanyāplāvyāpātyā vā

The forms bhavya, geya, pravacanīya, upasthānīya, janya, āplāvya, and āpātya are optionally prescribed as agent-sense participial words.

लः कर्मणि च भावे चाकर्मकेभ्यः

laḥ karmaṇi ca bhāve cākarmakebhyaḥ

With transitive roots, the lakāra endings can express either the agent or the object; with intransitive roots, either the agent or the abstract action itself.

तयोरेव कृत्यक्तखलर्थाः

tayoreva kṛtyaktakhalarthāḥ

In these same two senses (object/abstract-action), kṛtya-affixes, kta, and khal-type affixes are used, e.g. kartavyo ghaṭaḥ kulālena "a pot is to be made by the potter."

आदिकर्मणि क्तः कर्तरि च

ādikarmaṇi ktaḥ kartari ca

In expressing the beginning of an action, kta is also used in the agentive sense (not only object/abstract), e.g. prakṛtaḥ kaṭaṁ devadattaḥ "Devadatta has begun the mat."

गत्यर्थाकर्मकश्लिषशीङ्स्थाआसवसजनरुहजीर्यतिभ्यश्च

gatyarthākarmakaśliṣaśīṅsthāāsavasajanaruhajīryatibhyaśca

Motion-verbs, intransitives, and śliṣ, śī, sthā, ās, vas, jan, ruh, and jṝ likewise take kta in the agentive sense, e.g. gato devadatto grāmam "Devadatta has gone to the village."

दाशगोघ्नौ सम्प्रदाने

dāśagoghnau sampradāne

In the dative sense, the forms dāśaḥ and goghnaḥ are specifically prescribed, e.g. dāśaḥ "one for whom (something) is given."

भीमादयोऽपादाने

bhīmādayo'pādāne

In the ablative sense, bhīma and similar forms are specifically prescribed, e.g. bhīmaḥ "one from whom people flee in fear."

ताभ्यामन्यत्रोणादयः

tābhyāmanyatroṇādayaḥ

In senses other than dative or ablative, the uṇ-class affixes are used, giving kṛṣiḥ "farming," tantuḥ "thread."

क्तोऽधिकरणे च ध्रौव्यगतिप्रत्यवसानार्थेभ्यः

kto'dhikaraṇe ca dhrauvyagatipratyavasānārthebhyaḥ

Roots meaning "to remain fixed," "to move," or "to eat" take kta in the locative sense too, alongside agent/abstract, e.g. idam eṣām āsitam "this is where they sat."

लस्य

lasya

A governing rule: from here on, the substitutions taught apply in place of "l" (the lakāra tense/mood marker).

तिप्तस्झिसिप्थस्थमिब्वस्मस्ताताञ्झथासाथांध्वमिड्वहिमहिङ्

tiptasjhisipthasthamibvasmastātāñjhathāsāthāṁdhvamiḍvahimahiṅ

In place of the lakāra, eighteen actual personal endings are substituted: the nine parasmaipada endings (tip, tas, jhi, sip, thas, tha, mip, vas, mas) and the nine ātmanepada endings (ta, ātām, jha, thās, āthām, dhvam, iṭ, vahi, mahiṅ).

टित आत्मनेपदानां टेरे

ṭita ātmanepadānāṁ ṭere

For ṭit-marked lakāras (laṭ, liṭ, luṭ, lṛṭ, leṭ, loṭ), the "ṭi" portion of the ātmanepada endings is replaced by e, giving edhate.

थासः से

thāsaḥ se

For ṭit lakāras, thās is replaced by se, giving edhase.

लिटस्तझयोरेशिरेच्

liṭastajhayoreśirec

In the perfect (liṭ), t is replaced by e and jha by irec, giving edhāñcakre, edhire.

परस्मैपदानां णलतुसुसणल्वमाः

parasmaipadānāṁ ṇalatususaṇalvamāḥ

In the perfect, the parasmaipada endings are replaced by ṇal, atus, us, thal, athus, a, ṇal, va, ma, giving babhūva "he was."

विदो लटो वा

vido laṭo vā

After vid ("to know"), the present-tense (laṭ) parasmaipada endings are optionally replaced by the perfect-type endings, giving veda beside vetti "he knows."

ब्रुवः पञ्चानामादित आहो ब्रुवः

bruvaḥ pañcānāmādita āho bruvaḥ

After brū ("to speak"), for the first five present-tense parasmaipada endings, the substitute āh is optionally used, giving āha, āhatuḥ, āhuḥ.

लोटो लङ्वत्

loṭo laṅvat

The loṭ (imperative) endings behave like those of laṅ (imperfect), with the tām-type substitutions and loss of s conditioned by the ṅit marker.

एरुः

eruḥ

In loṭ, i is replaced by u, giving bhavatu "let it be."

सेर्हि अपित् च

serhi apit ca

In loṭ, si is replaced by hi, which is non-pit (does not trigger guṇa), giving stuhi.

वा छन्दसि

vā chandasi

In Vedic usage, this hi may optionally behave as pit instead, giving juhodhi beside juhudhi.

मेर्निः

merniḥ

In loṭ, mi is replaced by ni, giving bhūni.

आमेतः

āmetaḥ

In loṭ, e is replaced by ām, giving edhatām.

सवाभ्यां व अमौ

savābhyāṁ va amau

After s or v, the loṭ e is replaced by va or am respectively, giving edhasva.

आडुत्तमस्य पिच्च

āḍuttamasya picca

The first-person loṭ ending takes the augment āṭ, which is pit (does not block guṇa etc.), giving bhavāni.

एतः ऐ

etaḥ ai

In the loṭ first-person, e is replaced by ai, giving edhai.

लेटोऽटाटौ

leṭo'ṭāṭau

Leṭ optionally takes the augments aṭ or āṭ, giving variant forms like bhavati, bhvāti, bhaviṣati.

आतः ऐ

ātaḥ ai

In the dual, the leṭ ātmanepada ā is replaced by ai, giving aite beside ete.

वा एतोऽन्यत्र

vā eto'nyatra

Elsewhere, the leṭ e is optionally replaced by ai, giving atai beside ate.

इतश्च लोपः परस्मैपदेषु

itaśca lopaḥ parasmaipadeṣu

In leṭ, the i of parasmaipada endings is optionally elided, giving at beside ati.

सः उत्तमस्य

saḥ uttamasya

In leṭ, the s of the first-person ending is optionally elided, giving ava beside avaḥ.

नित्यं ङितः

nityaṁ ṅitaḥ

For ṅit-marked lakāras, the first-person s-final ending is obligatorily elided, giving apacāva.

इतश्च

itaśca

For ṅit-marked lakāras (liṅ, laṅ, luṅ, lṛṅ), the final i of an i-final parasmaipada ending is elided, giving abhavat.

तस्थस्थमिपां तांतंतमः

tasthasthamipāṁ tāṁtaṁtamaḥ

In laṅ, liṅ, luṅ, and lṛṅ, tas, thas, tha, and mip are replaced by tām, tam, ta, and am, giving apacatām, apacam.

लिङः सीयुट्

liṅaḥ sīyuṭ

In liṅ, the ātmanepada endings take the augment sīyuṭ, giving edheta.

यासुट् परस्मैपदेषूदात्तो ङिच्च

yāsuṭ parasmaipadeṣūdātto ṅicca

In liṅ, the parasmaipada endings take the acutely-accented, ṅit-marked augment yāsuṭ, giving kuryāt "may he do."

कित् आशिषि

kit āśiṣi

In a benedictory sense, the liṅ augment yāsuṭ is instead kit (blocking guṇa), giving bhūyāt "may it be!"

झस्य रन्

jhasya ran

In liṅ, jha is replaced by ran, giving edheran.

इटोऽत्

iṭo't

In liṅ, iṭ is replaced by at, giving edheya.

सुट् तिथोः

suṭ tithoḥ

In the benedictive liṅ, the t and th endings take the augment suṭ, giving edhiṣīṣṭa.

झेर्जुस्

jherjus

In liṅ, jhi is replaced by jus, giving bhaveyuḥ.

सिजभ्यस्तविदिभ्यश्च

sijabhyastavidibhyaśca

After a sic-formed stem, a reduplicated (abhyasta) root, or vid, the jhi ending (in ṅit lakāras) likewise takes jus, giving akārṣuḥ.

आतः

ātaḥ

After an ā-final root too, jhi (in ṅit lakāras) takes jus, giving apuḥ.

लङः शाकटायनस्यैव

laṅaḥ śākaṭāyanasyaiva

After an ā-final root, jhi in laṅ takes jus only according to the teacher Śākaṭāyana, giving ayuḥ.

द्विषश्च

dviṣaśca

With dviṣ, the liṅ jhi likewise takes jus per Śākaṭāyana, giving adviṣuḥ.

तिङ्शित्सार्वधातुकम्

tiṅśitsārvadhātukam

Tiṅ endings and śit-marked affixes are together termed "sārvadhātuka."

आर्धधातुकं शेषः

ārdhadhātukaṁ śeṣaḥ

All remaining root-affixes, other than tiṅ and śit, are termed "ārdhadhātuka."

लिट् च

liṭ ca

The liṭ (perfect) tiṅ endings are also, exceptionally, termed "ārdhadhātuka" (despite being tiṅ).

लिङ् आशिषि

liṅ āśiṣi

In the benedictive sense, the liṅ tiṅ endings are likewise termed "ārdhadhātuka," giving edhiṣīṣṭa.

छन्दस्युभयथा

chandasyubhayathā

In Vedic usage, tiṅ and śit affixes may, as appropriate, be termed either "sārvadhātuka" or "ārdhadhātuka." This closes Pāda 4 — and thereby the whole of Adhyāya Three.

ङ्याप्प्रातिपदिकात्

ṅyāpprātipadikāt

This opening sutra of Adhyaya 4 establishes that what follows applies after a prātipadika (a bare nominal stem) or after a stem already ending in ṅī or āp. As a governing rule (adhikāra) it silently continues through the whole taddhita section that follows.

स्वौजसमौट्छष्टाभ्याम्भिस्ङेभ्याम्भ्यस्ङसिभ्याम्भ्यस्ङसोसाम्ङ्योस्सुप्

svaujasamauṭchaṣṭābhyāmbhisṅebhyāmbhyasṅasibhyāmbhyasṅasosāmṅyossup

After a prātipadika or a ṅī/āp-ending stem, the twenty-one nominal case-endings (su, au, jas ... down to sup) are technically termed sup. These are the endings that build every case-form of a noun, e.g. kumārī, kumāryau, kumāryaḥ.

स्त्रियाम्

striyām

The affixes taught in the following sutras are added to a nominal stem specifically to express the feminine gender. This opens the section on feminine-forming affixes.

अजाद्यतष्टाप्

ajādyataṣṭāp

Stems listed in the ajādi group, and a-ending stems generally, take the affix ṭāp (giving ā) to express the feminine: aja + ṭāp → ajā ('she-goat'), vardhamāna → vardhamānā.

ऋन्नेभ्योङीप्

ṛnnebhyoṅīp

Stems ending in ṛ or n take the affix ṅīp (giving ī) to form the feminine: kartṛ → kartrī ('doer, fem.'), daṇḍin → daṇḍinī ('staff-bearer, fem.').

उगितश्च

ugitaśca

A stem whose final u, ṛ or ḷ functions as an it-marker (called ugit) takes ṅīp for the feminine: bhavat (from the affix -vatu-) → bhavatī. This also covers śatṛ- and īyasun-ending words, which count as ugit.

वनोरच

vanoraca

A stem ending in -van takes ṅīp for the feminine, with its final n further replaced by r: dhīvan → dhīvarī ('fisherwoman'), pīvan → pīvarī ('stout woman'), śarvan → śarvarī ('night').

पादोऽन्यतरस्याम्

pādo'nyatarasyām

In all the senses taught up to sutra 5.2.1 (offspring, origin, collection etc.), the word strī optionally takes the affix nañ, and puṁs optionally takes snañ. Thus strī + nañ, with vṛddhi and ṇatva, gives straiṇa ('pertaining to women').

टाबृचि

ṭābṛci

When a Ṛgvedic verse (ṛc) is meant, a stem ending in -pāda takes ṭāp for the feminine: dvipadā ṛk ('a two-footed verse'), tripadā ṛk, catuṣpadā ṛk.

न षट्स्वस्रादिभ्यः

na ṣaṭsvasrādibhyaḥ

Numeral stems bearing the 'ṣaṭ' designation (pañcan, saptan etc.) and stems of the svasṛ ('sister') group do not take ṅīp or ṭāp: they keep the same form in the feminine, e.g. pañca brāhmaṇyaḥ, sapta brāhmaṇyaḥ.

मनः

manaḥ

A stem ending in -man (formed with the affix manip) does not take ṅīp: dāman, pāman and sīman keep the same forms - dāmā, pāmā, sīmā - without a separate feminine marker.

अनो बहुव्रीहेः

ano bahuvrīheḥ

A bahuvrīhi (exocentric) compound ending in -an does not take ṅīp: 'she who has fine joints' is supārvā, remaining supārvāṇau, supārvāṇaḥ in the other numbers without a distinct feminine affix.

डाबुभाभ्यामन्यतरस्याम्

ḍābubhābhyāmanyatarasyām

As an option to the two preceding prohibitions, a -man stem or an -an-ending bahuvrīhi may optionally instead take ḍāp (ā): pāmā or pāme (itch), bahurājā or bahurāje ('assembly having many kings').

अनुपसर्जनात्

anupasarjanāt

From here the word 'anupasarjanāt' ('not being a subordinate member') carries forward as an anuvṛtti: the affixes that follow apply only when the stem is the principal, not the subordinate, member of a compound, e.g. kuruṣu carati → kurucarī.

टिड्ढाणञ्द्व्यसज्दघ्नञ्मात्रच्तयप्ठक्ठञ्कञ्क्वरपः

ṭiḍḍhāṇañdvyasajdaghnañmātractayapṭhakṭhañkañkvarapaḥ

A stem ending in a ṭit affix, or formed with ḍha, aṇ, añ, dvyasac, daghnac, mātrac, tayap, ṭhak, ṭhañ, kañ or kvarap, when it is the principal (not subordinate) member of a compound, takes ṅīp: kurucara → kurucarī, aupagava → aupagavī.

यञश्च

yañaśca

A stem formed with the affix yañ takes ṅīp for the feminine: gārgya (a gotra name) → gārgyī.

प्राचांष्फतद्धितः

prācāṁṣphataddhitaḥ

According to the eastern grammarians, a yañ-ending stem may alternatively take the affix ṣpha (whose ph is later replaced by āyan), giving forms like gārgyāyaṇī alongside gārgyī.

सर्वत्रलोहितादिकतन्तेभ्यः

sarvatralohitādikatantebhyaḥ

The yañ-ending stems listed from lohita through kata likewise take ṣpha for the feminine: lauhityāyaṇī, bābhravyāyaṇī.

कौरव्यमाण्डूकाभ्यांच

kauravyamāṇḍūkābhyāṁca

The words kauravya and māṇḍūka likewise take ṣpha for the feminine: kauravyāyaṇī, māṇḍūkāyanī.

वयसिप्रथमे

vayasiprathame

An a-ending stem used in the sense of 'in girlhood' takes ṅīṣ for the feminine: kumāra → kumārī ('young girl').

द्विगोः

dvigoḥ

An a-ending stem with the dvigu (numeral-compound) designation takes ṅīṣ for the feminine - except dvigu stems that fall in the ajādi group: trilokā → trilokī ('the three worlds', fem.).

अपरिमाणबिस्ताचितकम्बल्येभ्योनतद्धितलुकि

aparimāṇabistācitakambalyebhyonataddhitaluki

When the taddhita affix has undergone luk (elision), a dvigu not denoting a measure, and stems ending in vista, acita or kambalya, do not take ṅīp: pañcāśvā, dvivarṣā, dvibistā, dvyācitā.

काण्डान्तात्क्षेत्रे

kāṇḍāntātkṣetre

A dvigu ending in kāṇḍa, in the sense of a measured field and with the taddhita affix elided, does not take ṅīp: dvikāṇḍā (a plot of two kāṇḍas), trikāṇḍā.

पुरुषात्प्रमाणेऽन्यतरस्याम्

puruṣātpramāṇe'nyatarasyām

A dvigu ending in puruṣa, in the sense of a measure, optionally does not take ṅīp when the taddhita affix is elided: dvipuruṣā or dvipuruṣī parikhā ('a moat two men deep').

बहुव्रीहेरुधसोङीष्

bahuvrīherudhasoṅīṣ

A bahuvrīhi ending in ūdhas ('udder') takes ṅīṣ for the feminine: kuṇḍodhnī, ghaṭodhnī ('having an udder like a pot').

संख्याव्ययादेर्ङीप्

saṁkhyāvyayāderṅīp

An ūdhas-ending bahuvrīhi preceded by a numeral or an indeclinable takes ṅīp: dvyūdhnī, tryūdhnī (with numerals); atyūdhnī, nirūdhnī (with indeclinables).

दामहायनान्ताच्च

dāmahāyanāntācca

A bahuvrīhi ending in dāman or hāyana, preceded by a numeral, takes ṅīp: dvidāmnī, tridāmnī; dvihāyaṇī, trihāyaṇī, caturhāyaṇī ('a two/three/four-year-old female').

अनउपधालोपिनोऽन्यतरस्याम्

anaupadhālopino'nyatarasyām

A bahuvrīhi ending in -an whose penultimate vowel is lost optionally takes ṅīp: bahurājñī sabhā ('an assembly of many kings'), alongside bahurājā or bahurāje.

नित्यं संज्ञाछन्दसोः

nityaṁ saṁjñāchandasoḥ

In a proper name and in Vedic usage, such a bahuvrīhi always (not optionally) takes ṅīp: surājñī (a village name); in the Veda, pañcadāmnī.

केवलमामकभागधेयपापापरसमानार्यकृतसुमङ्गलभेषजाच्च

kevalamāmakabhāgadheyapāpāparasamānāryakṛtasumaṅgalabheṣajācca

In a proper name and in Vedic usage, the words kevala, māmaka, bhāgadheya, pāpa, apara, samāna, ārya, kṛta, sumaṅgala and bheṣaja take ṅīp: kevalī (Vedic) beside kevalā (common usage), māmakī beside māmikā.

रात्रेश्वाजसौ

rātreśvājasau

In a proper name and in Vedic usage, the word rātri takes ṅīp except before the nominative plural (jas): yā rātrī sṛṣṭā rātrībhiḥ.

अन्तर्वत्पतिवतोर्नुक्

antarvatpativatornuk

The words antarvat and pativat take ṅīp along with the augment nuk: antarvatnī ('pregnant'), pativatnī.

पत्युर्नोयज्ञसंयोगे

patyurnoyajñasaṁyoge

In the sense connected with a sacrifice, the word pati, when made feminine, has its final syllable replaced by na: yajamānasya patnī ('the sacrificer's wife').

विभाषासपूर्वस्य

vibhāṣāsapūrvasya

When pati is preceded by another member in a compound, the same replacement by na optionally applies: vṛddhapatnī or vṛddhapatiḥ ('she/he whose husband is old'), sthūlapatnī or sthūlapatiḥ.

नित्यं सपत्न्यादिषु

nityaṁ sapatnyādiṣu

In a fixed set of words including sapatnī, the replacement of pati's ending by na is obligatory, not optional: samānaḥ patiḥ asyāḥ → sapatnī ('co-wife'), ekapatnī.

पूतक्रतोरैच

pūtakratoraica

In the feminine, the word pūtakratu takes ṅīp along with replacement of its ending by ai: pūtakratāyī ('wife of Pūtakratu').

वृषाकप्यग्निकुसितकुसीदानामुदात्तः

vṛṣākapyagnikusitakusīdānāmudāttaḥ

The words vṛṣākapi, agni, kusita and kusīda take ṅīp for the feminine with an acute-accented ai ending: vṛṣākapāyī, agnāyī, kusitāyī, kusīdāyī.

मनोरौवा

manorauvā

The word manu takes ṅīp for the feminine, with its ending optionally replaced by au or by acute ai: mānavī or manāyī ('Manu's wife').

वर्णादनुदात्तात्तोपधात्तो नः

varṇādanudāttāttopadhātto naḥ

A colour-word with an unaccented (anudātta) ending and a penultimate t optionally takes ṅīṣ for the feminine, with that t replaced by n: eta → enī ('dappled/spotted, fem.').

अन्यतोङीष्

anyatoṅīṣ

Other unaccented colour-words take ṅīṣ for the feminine without the na-substitution of the previous rule: sāraṅgī, kalmāṣī, śabalī (various 'dappled/spotted' colours).

षिद् गौरादिभ्यश्च

ṣid gaurādibhyaśca

Stems marked with the it-letter ṣ, and words of the gaurādi group (gaura etc.), take ṅīṣ for the feminine: gārgyāyaṇī, gaurī, nartakī, rajakī.

जानपदकुण्डगोणस्थलभाज्नागकालनीलकुशकामुककबराद् वृत्त्यमत्रावपनाकृत्रिमाश्राणास्थौल्यवर्णनाच्छादनायोविकारमैथुनेच्छाकेशवेशेषु

jānapadakuṇḍagoṇasthalabhājnāgakālanīlakuśakāmukakabarād vṛttyamatrāvapanākṛtrimāśrāṇāsthaulyavarṇanācchādanāyovikāramaithunecchākeśaveśeṣu

The eleven words jānapada, kuṇḍa, goṇa, sthala, bhāj, nāga, kāla, nīla, kuśa, kāmuka and kabara each take ṅīp when used in one specific corresponding sense: jānapadī ('livelihood'), kuṇḍī ('vessel'), goṇī ('sack'), nīlī ('indigo plant').

शोणात्प्राचाम्

śoṇātprācām

According to the ancient teachers, the word śoṇa takes ṅīp in the feminine: śoṇī ('reddish mare'), alongside śoṇā.

वोतोगुणवचनात्

votoguṇavacanāt

A u-ending stem denoting a quality optionally takes ṅīṣ for the feminine, its u then changing to v by the yaṇ rule: mṛdu → mṛdvī ('soft, fem.').

बह्वादिभ्यश्च

bahvādibhyaśca

Words of the bahvādi group such as bahu take ṅīṣ for the feminine: bahu → bahvī, beside plain bahuḥ.

नित्यंछन्दसि

nityaṁchandasi

In Vedic usage the bahu-group words obligatorily take ṅīp: bahvīṣu hitvā pratiban.

भुवश्च

bhuvaśca

In Vedic usage the word bhū obligatorily takes ṅīp: vibhvī, prabhvī, sambhavī.

पुंयोगादाख्यायाम्

puṁyogādākhyāyām

A word denoting a man, when used for his wife by virtue of the marital relation, takes ṅīṣ: gopa → gopī ('a gopa's wife').

इन्द्रवरुणभवशर्वरुद्रमृडहिमारण्ययवयवनमातुलाचार्याणामानुक्

indravaruṇabhavaśarvarudramṛḍahimāraṇyayavayavanamātulācāryāṇāmānuk

The twelve words indra, varuṇa, bhava, śarva, rudra, mṛḍa, hima, araṇya, yava, yavana, mātula and ācārya, when used for 'wife of', take ṅīṣ together with the augment ānuk: indra → indrāṇī, varuṇa → varuṇānī.

क्रीतात्करणपूर्वात्

krītātkaraṇapūrvāt

An a-ending stem beginning with an instrumental element and ending in krīta ('bought') takes ṅīṣ for the feminine: vastrakrīta → vastrakrītī ('bought with cloth').

क्तादल्पाख्यायाम्

ktādalpākhyāyām

A past-participle (kta) stem preceded by an instrumental element takes ṅīp in the sense of 'a little': abhravilipatī dyauḥ ('a sky lightly smeared with cloud').

बहुव्रीहेश्चान्तोदात्तात्

bahuvrīheścāntodāttāt

A kta-ending bahuvrīhi with acute accent on the last syllable takes ṅīp in the feminine: śaṅkhabhinnī ('she whose forehead is gashed'), keśalūnī ('she whose hair is cut').

अस्वाङ्गपूर्वपदाद्वा

asvāṅgapūrvapadādvā

When the first member of such a kta-ending bahuvrīhi is not a body-part word, ṅīp is optional: śārṅgajagdhī or śārṅgajagdhā, surāpītī or surāpītā.

स्वाङ्गाच्चोपसर्जना दसंयोगोपधात्

svāṅgāccopasarjanā dasaṁyogopadhāt

When an a-ending stem ends in a subordinate (upasarjana) body-part word whose penultimate letter is not part of a consonant cluster, ṅīṣ is optional for the feminine: candramukhī or candramukhā, sukeśī or sukeśā.

नासिकोदरौष्ठजङ्घादन्तकर्णशृङ्गाच्च

nāsikodarauṣṭhajaṅghādantakarṇaśṛṅgācca

Stems ending in the body-part words nāsikā, udara, oṣṭha, jaṅghā, danta, karṇa and śṛṅga likewise optionally take ṅīp: tuṅganāsikī or tuṅganāsikā, bimboṣṭhī or bimboṣṭhā, samadantī or samadantā.

नक्रोडादिबह्वचः

nakroḍādibahvacaḥ

When the ending body-part word is from the kroḍādi group, or is polysyllabic (bahvac), ṅīṣ does not apply: kalyāṇakroḍā, pṛthujaghanā, mahālalāṭā (no feminine ī-form).

सहनञ्विद्यमानपूर्वाच्च

sahanañvidyamānapūrvācca

A body-part stem preceded by saha ('with'), the negative nañ, or vidyamāna ('existing') also does not take ṅīp: sakeśā, akeśā, vidyamānakeśā (all without a distinct ī-form).

नखमुखात्संज्ञायाम

nakhamukhātsaṁjñāyāma

When mukha ('face') or nakha ('nail') ends a stem used as a proper name, ṅīṣ does not apply: śūrpaṇakhā, gauramukhā (no separate feminine ī-form).

दीर्घजिह्वीचछन्दसि

dīrghajihvīcachandasi

In Vedic usage the form dīrghajihvī is established as an irregular (nipātana) formation: dīrghajihvī vai devānāṁ havyamaleṭ.

दिक्पूर्वपदान्ङीप्

dikpūrvapadānṅīp

A stem beginning with a word denoting direction takes ṅīp: prāṅmukhī or prāṅmukhā, prāṅnāsikī (but not prāggulphā, since there the penultimate has a consonant cluster).

वाहः

vāhaḥ

A stem ending in -vāh ('carrying') optionally takes ṅīp for the feminine: dvityauhī, praṣṭhauhī.